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ANTH1014: Introduction to Biological Anthropology > 2.4: Infectious disease > Flashcards

2.4: Infectious disease Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the 5 aspects of Singer’s argument that ‘infection is always more than just biology’

A
  1. Infectious agents are necessary for infectious disease to occur
  2. Cultural & social factors are mediated by environmental conditions
  3. Cultural and social factors influence what pathogens can do
  4. Cultural and social processes also affect what pathogens are
  5. In turn, the presence of infectious diseases shapes cultural and social systems
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2
Q

What are the 3 components of the anthropology of infectious disease?

A
  1. Biological factors – pathogens, human immune system/health
  2. Environmental factors – resource availability, weather/climate
  3. Sociocultural factors – understanding and behaviour in response to disease, social interaction, globalisation
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3
Q

What are the 7 human influences on disease patterns?

A 
Sexual contact
Public health
Population density
Mobility
Transport and communication
Animal contact
Environment/climate
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4
Q

Epidemiological transitions

A

The way humans modify their social systems and environments; these have costs and benefits for disease

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5
Q

4 epidemiological transitions

A

Hunter-gatherer
Sedentary farming
Early industrialisation
Modern urban

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6
Q

Give an example of an infectious disease and describe how it is ‘always more than just biology’

A

Black death plague
The plague pathogen, rat flea vector, and rat, gerbil and human hosts are all necessary for infectious disease to occur
Due to environmental conditions, the migration of Genghis Khan’s army in the 14th Century, and the method of disposing bodies killed by the plague into mass grave pits, the Black death spread across Europe
The mass deaths shaped European cultural and social systems (e.g. hierarchy of Pope to peasants, the Dance of Death 1493)
Better public health in Europe in the 19th Century – present day prevented the spread of the 3rd pandemic of Black Death and current resurgence, which shows that cultural and social factors influence what pathogens can do

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7
Q

What type of pathogen are the majority of infectious diseases caused by?

A

Zoonotic pathogens

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8
Q

4 historical zoonoses

A

HIV
Small Pox
Measles
TB

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9
Q

4 re-emerging zoonoses

A

Plague
Rabies
Bovine TB
Rift valley fever

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10
Q

8 emerging zoonoses

A 
H1N1
SARS
Ebola
Zika
BSE
Lyme D
NIPAH
Salmonella
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11
Q

What social/cultural factor largely causes the emergence of infectious diseases?

A

Anthropogenic population change

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12
Q

Describe the 4 steps of antibiotic resistance

A
  1. Lots of germs, a few are drug resistant
  2. Antibiotics kill bacteria responsible for illness, as well as good bacteria protecting the body from infect
  3. The drug-resistant bacteria grow and take over
  4. Some bacteria give their drug-resistance to other bacteria, causing more problems
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13
Q

Give 2 examples of how antibiotic resistance spreads from animals to humans

A
  1. Animals get antibiotics and develop resistant bacteria in their guts, drug-resistant bacteria remains on meat from animals and spreads to humans when not cooked properly
  2. Animals get antibiotics and develop resistant bacteria in their guts, fertilizer or water containing animal faeces and drug-resistant bacteria is used on crops, which are eaten and spread to humans
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14
Q

Give 2 examples of how antibiotic resistance spreads from humans to other humans

A
  1. Individual gets antibiotics and develop resistant bacteria in their gut, they stay at home and spread the resistant bacteria to their general community
  2. Individual gets antibiotics and develop resistant bacteria in their gut, within the healthcare facility the patient stays in the resistant bacteria spreads to surfaces and other patients, patients go home and spread the resistant bacteria to their general communities
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15
Q

Other than because of pathogen movement, why does infectious disease emerge?

A

Because the vector carrying the pathogen has moved

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16
Q

Give 2 circumstances in which infectious disease locally emerges

A
  1. Environmental change affecting hosts and vectors

2. Social change that affects exposure to vectors/animal hosts

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17
Q

What are the 4 different types of Plasmodium parasites (they cause malaria in humans)?

A

P. malariae
P. vivax
P. falciparum
P. ovale

18
Q

How is malaria transmitted?

A

Via the bites of infected mosquitoes

The parasites multiple in the human liver and then infect red blood cells

19
Q

Describe the breeding environment, feeding habits, and length of life of A. funestus (mosquito)

A

Breeding environment: shady river edges, heavily vegetated swamps
Feeding habits: feeds on other mammals as well as humans
Length of life: relatively short

20
Q

Describe the breeding environment, feeding habits, and length of life of A. gambiae (mosquito)

A

Breeding environment: open sunny pools, ditches with slow running water
Feeding habits: humans are preferred, frequent eater
Length of life: relatively long lived

21
Q

Describe the breeding environment, feeding habits, and length of life of A. culicifacies (mosquito)

A

Breeding environment: stagnant irrigation tanks, rain puddles
Feeding habits: cows/pigs preferred, feeds every 3 days
Length of life: short lived

22
Q

2 effects of agriculture on A. Funestus and A. Gambiae (mosquitoes)

A
  1. Forest clearance changes available breeding sites/niches

2. Increased density of human populations increases feeding for mosquitoes, which increases probability for transmission

23
Q

Describe the movement of the vector A.Gambiae across the world

A

1938: crossed Atlantic to Brazil
1940s: reached Egypt

24
Q

What 3 factors influence the basic reproduction rate (B) of mosquitoes?

A
  1. Biting habit of mosquito
  2. Longevity of mosquito
  3. Ambient temperature
25
Q

3 human defences against parasites (plasmodium)

A
  1. Immune response
  2. Genetic adaptation: red blood cell diseases
  3. Anti-malarial drugs
26
Q

3 human defences against mosquitoes (anopheles)

A
  1. Pesticides
  2. Environmental control
  3. Avoidance (behavioural)
27
Q

List the 3 control methods for malaria used in Sri Lanka in 1968, and the 3 reasons for their failure

A

Control methods:
Insecticides
Measures to reduce breeding ground
Drugs/prophylaxis

Failure:
Resistance to pesticides/green revolution
Population growth and land clearance
Failure to look at wider picture

28
Q

Which 3 infectious diseases are bats (animals hosts) responsible for?

A

Ebola
SARS
Hendra

29
Q

Why are bats effective animals hosts?

A

Bats have very important ecological function
Bats live in very close proximity to humans
Bats also interact with livestock and other domestic animals
All of these interactions are shaped by social, political, cultural interaction on multiple scales

30
Q

What are the 3 stages of emergence of pandemic zoonotic diseases?

A
  1. Pre-emergence: encroachment into wildlife habitat, change in land use
  2. Localised emergence: expansion of the wildlife-human being interface
  3. Pandemic emergence: international travel and trade
31
Q

What are the 6 changing patterns of infectious disease (Cohen, 2000)?

A
  1. Microbial adaptation and change
  2. International travel and commerce
  3. Changes in technology and industry
  4. Changes in demographics and behaviour
  5. Environmental change and land use
  6. Breakdown of public health measures
32
Q

What is the difference between control and eradication of infectious disease?

A

Eradication: completely gone, elimination with no further measures to control

Control: Maintaining reduction with control cases

33
Q

What are 4 challenges that infectious disease eradication programmes face?

A
  1. Build up of susceptibility because reduced perceived risk of infection
  2. Manipulation by the media
  3. Risk of other rarer pathogens taking over once the main one is eradicated
  4. Getting economic support for the last stretch of the endgame (why help just 0.3% of the population when you could help 100 people?) – people become complacent
34
Q

What specific characteristics of the disease made smallpox (relatively) easy to control and eradicate (5 biological reasons, 3 socio-political reasons)?

A

Biological reasons:

  1. No subclinical (people are not showing symptoms) cases – it is visible
  2. No recurrent excretion of virus
  3. Can usually be diagnosed before it becomes infectious
  4. No known animal reservoir host
  5. An effective, stable vaccine is available

Socio-political reasons:

  1. No social barriers to prevention (e.g. sexually transmitted disease)
  2. Global eradication offered profit for rich and poor countries (because it affected rich people)
  3. Inspired leadership of the intensified programme of WHO (the importance of individual agency, good leaderships, good teams)
35
Q

How has/does human behaviour influence the emergence/re-emergence of infectious disease? (9)

A
  1. Political instability prevents the application of vaccines
  2. Immunisation prioritised over primary care – should we care for individuals who are sick or protect the individuals at risk?
  3. Funding is organised by NGOs rather than WHO, which leads to diffusion of responsibility and neglecting of issues – private investors can become complacent if their money isn’t invested in the right ways
  4. Donors become complacent if the cost of the individual rises
  5. Deforestation – more wildlife encroachment into human life
  6. Global warming – climate change
  7. Urbanisation – more rapid spread of infectious diseases (respiratory)
  8. Migration and transnational migration with the ease of travel
  9. Industrialisation – slums, issues of waste disposal, diseases transmitted through water and pollution
36
Q

7 arguments FOR exterminating animal hosts to protect ourselves from new viral infections

A
  1. Animal hosts can be important for ecological systems
  2. Vaccinate the wildlife host species instead of extermination
  3. Cull wildlife, but don’t exterminate them]
  4. Zooprophylaxis: use animals to divert vector feeding away from people
  5. Elimination of the animal host habitat, rather than the host
  6. Develop hosts resistant to pathogens by infecting them with naturally occurring intracellular insect parasites
  7. Change societal structure, increase socioeconomic development, enhance awareness of animal host risk
37
Q

3 arguments AGAINST exterminating animal hosts to protect ourselves from new viral infections

A
  1. Just culling the wildlife decreases host abundance, but might actually increase transmission because vectors are likely to infect remaining hosts at a higher frequency
  2. As a result of zooprophylaxis, smaller proportion of vectors feed on people, but transmission could increase
  3. Vaccinating individuals protects only those who can access and pay for it, and does not effect transmission intensity
38
Q

Pathogen virulence

A

The degree of damage caused from a pathogen to its host

39
Q

How do ease and route of transmission affect pathogen virulence?

A

Easier route of transmission increases the strength of the pathogen and its ability to cause larger scale damage to the host organism

40
Q

Is it possible to achieve a pathogen free world?

A

No

ANTH1014: Introduction to Biological Anthropology (13 decks)

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