2.4 Health, human rights, and intervention Flashcards
1
Q
Indicators of development (4)
A
- GDP per capita
- Life expectancy
- Literacy rate
- Infant mortality rate
2
Q
What does GDP per capita tell us about levels of development?
A
- A measure of wealth and mean wealth through income.
- A high GDP per capita could represent a high-earning population and productive workforce
- GDP per capita could be skewed by very rich minorities, even if the majority of the population earn very little.
3
Q
What does life expectancy tell us about levels of development?
A
- Measuring lifestyles and health.
- Life expectancy is an estimate of how long a person will live, made when they’re born, based on predicted advances, current services and the risk of diseases.
4
Q
What does literacy rate tell us about levels of development?
A
- Quality of education which correlates to economic output.
- A well-educated workforce tend to earn higher wages.
- Literacy rates can also impact personal lives
5
Q
What does infant mortality rate tell us about levels of development?
A
- Quality of healthcare and attitudes towards children.
- Infant mortality is important since infants are some of the most vulnerable people of society, so are more likely to catch disease and infection or suffer from malnutrition.
6
Q
Complex indices of development examples (3)
A
- happy planet index
- KOF index of globalisation
- World Happiness Index
7
Q
Describe the happy planet index
A
- Links life expectancy, wellbeing and equality with the impact of ecological footprint.
- It does not feature an economic component like most measures do.
- wellbeing is subjective
8
Q
Describe the KOF index of globalisation
A
- Measures the strength of links between countries.
- Uses economic, social and political criteria.
- Despite not being a direct measure of development, globalisation closely links to a country’s development; nations that can prioritise globalisation tend to have good infrastructure, education for their workers’ families and economic funds available.
9
Q
Describe the world happiness index
A
- Measures alternative ideas like social support, generosity & corruption.
- This is a qualitative measure, based on how the population feels regarding the transparency of their government.
- The validity of the World Happiness Index could be argued, since opinions can largely be influenced by the media.
10
Q
Indicators used for HDI
A
- Health: life expectancy
- Education: expected years of schooling, mean years of schooling
- Wealth: GNI per capita
11
Q
Top 5 countries HDI
A
- Switzerland
- Norway
- Iceland
- Australia
- Denmark
12
Q
Bottom 5 countries HDI
A
- South Sudan
- Chad
- Niger
- Central African Republic
- Burundi
13
Q
Why do some countries rank higher than others for HDI? (3)
A
● These nations have large economies and advancing technology (quaternary) industries, resulting in a high GDP per capita.
● Cities and towns are well structured, with strong infrastructure and transport links, excellent supplies of clean water, electricity and food to households.
● Most of these nations have free education systems, with opportunities to progress onto further education (universities) or into employment & apprenticeships.
14
Q
Global trends in literacy rates
A
- Unsurprisingly, the literacy rates trends are similar to the Human Development Index, since literacy rates are one of many measures that are considered by the HDI.
- However, literacy rates may be unreliable, since the country itself measures it rather than an independent organisation. Therefore a country may claim to have a higher literacy rate to avoid intervention and portray the country as successful
15
Q
How do different styles of governance affect development?
A
- Different governments have different styles and strategies of governance.
- Different countries have different focuses for their development: sustainability, economic growth, laws focus on religion, reducing inequality within the population.
- No model/ governance style is completely successful.
16
Q
Describe democracy
A
- a system of government based on the belief that the population has equal rights in deciding on how the country is run.
- Each member of society who is eligible to vote gets to an elect representatives in government to govern on their behalf
17
Q
Describe capitalism
A
- the economic system where industry is owned by private businesses and are run to make profit as opposed to being run by the state.
- Within this system individuals earn wages based on their skills and hours worked.
- This can lead to great inequality of wealth across the population.
- However, capitalist economies tend to be the most wealthy and successful across the globe
18
Q
Describe ‘Western’ development
A
This westernised equal rights, democracy, capitalism - is seen by some as a successful in promoting development, since historically western countries have been (and continue to the present day) leading in economic and political significance
19
Q
Why don’t some governments wish to adopt Western governance and values?
A
- They may go against their traditions, culture and way of life.
- Western lifestyles are unsustainable, consuming large volumes of energy and water and creating a large proportion of greenhouse gas emissions.
- Many western countries have a large proportion of atheists or relaxed religious views. This can be reflected in laws: pro-abortion, divorce, mixed-gender schools. This can contradict other religions’ laws.
20
Q
Describe Sharia law model of governance
A
- law and religion are intertwined unlike in Western governments where secularisation has occurred.
- Sharia Law is particularly different from Western laws in its attitudes towards marriage, inheritance and women’s role in society.
- The severity of interpretations of the law is disputed between various Islamic countries, with Saudi Arabia having one of the strictest interpretations.
- As a consequence of this they have some of the most controversial views on women’s treatment and rights.
- They also have the death penalty and there’s much debate about their human rights record.
- Due to Saudi’s oil wealth they are still central players in the world’s economy
21
Q
Describe communism
A
the opposite to capitalism, prominent industries are state-owned which means competition between businesses is reduced. As a consequence of less focus on profits, working conditions and pay should be more regulated and fairer
22
Q
Why hasn’t communism been successful historically?
A
- Little economic growth, as there is no foreign direct investment or competition between companies.
- Wages were controlled by bureaucrats within government, so inequality still existed within wealth distribution and political voice.
- To maintain their one-party control, governments would restrict freedom of speech and human rights of their population.
23
Q
Describe authoritarianism
A
- Authoritarian States (sometimes called totalitarian) are the opposite to democratic states, where decisions are made by the government or an individual alone.
- Authoritarian states tend to have a bad record for development and human rights
24
Q
Why do developing countries have lower life expectancies? (5)
A
- poor healthcare due to lack of investment, education, and long journeys to hospitals
- poor access to food
- poor access to clean water
- climate can promote diseases (e.g. malaria in Africa)
- overcrowding increases spread of diseases
25
Why do developed countries have higher life expectancies? (3)
● Most developed countries have excellent access to clean water, some countries rarely experiencing severe drought.
● Most populations have disposable income, which they can spend on improving their lifestyle and wellbeing: central heating, fitness/ gym membership, dishwashers. This will reduce their risk of illness and injury, promote healthy living and so extend their life expectancies.
● Developed nations have good healthcare access, life insurance and can afford advancing medical procedures and medicines.
26
Health issues in developed nations (2)
- Lifestyle choices - including smoking, alcohol consumption and excessive saturated fats
- Large cities are still susceptible to infectious disease, due to their large population density and high net movement of people daily. They are also prone to extreme weather events (long- period heatwaves, blizzards) that can heighten illness, isolate vulnerable individuals and put pressure on supplies of water and food.
27
Describe variances in life expectancy across the UK
There is a ten year difference between life expectancies across the UK, with the highest life expectancies tending to be in the South.
28
Why has life expectancy improved in most places in the UK? (3)
- Changing Employment - As the UK develops, more people are employed in tertiary and quaternary industries so fewer people have physically demanding jobs.
- Increasing average wealth - Households earn more on average, so can spend more on improving their lifestyles and so have higher life expectancies.
- Fewer risks to life in the last decade, due to the introduction of stricter health & safety regulations in the workplace, increased vaccination programmes and improved knowledge from a young age of the hazards of smoking, crossing roads, etc.
29
Why do some parts of the UK have lower life expectancies?
● Economic decline - often due to deindustrialisation - can lead to sudden unemployment and deprivation within a community.
● Culture - e.g. of excessive drinking and smoking
● Densely populated cities are vulnerable to infectious diseases, especially due to the large net movement of people (tourists, business people, locals). This will limit life expectancy for cities such as London, Manchester and Birmingham.
30
Why are there health inequalities between genders?
- In some countries, inequality in the roles of gender will affect their health.
- Historically, in England, men would mine and so would be exposed to particulates and risks (mine collapsing, gas explosions, accident with equipment). Therefore, men would have a lower life expectancy due to their occupations.
- This is the case for mineral mining across Africa, where men face respiratory diseases and chemical exposure whilst the mother raises the family or have less-hazardous occupation.
31
Why are there health inequalities between socio-economic groups?
- Inequality between socio-economic groups has a large influence over an individual’s health.
- Often, low income socio-economic groups are employed in the more riskier or physically demanding jobs, due to the health risk associated with the work.
- Also, low income socio-economic groups have some of the lowest education rates. This can affect their attitude to healthy lifestyles and achieving a higher-paid, lower-risk job.
32
Why do indigenous and minority communities often have low life expectancies? (2)
- Limited provisions in accordance with their culture
- physical isolation from services
33
How does culture limit minority groups' access to health care?
- If indigenous communities rely on the natural environment for food and resources, some countries that limit their space and degrade the natural environment will damage the health of their indigenous communities.
- Alternatively, if health services are run in a way that conflicts with a minorities’ religion, some individuals may avoid medical assistance.
34
How does physical isolation limit minority groups' access to health care?
Indigenous communities tend to live isolated in remote rural locations, so have a restricted access to health services, emergency services and medicine. This may mean severe diseases go undiagnosed, individuals face a large risk of infection and often resort to herbal, traditional medicines
35
define night school
Opportunity for education in vocational skills for individuals above 18
36
How can night school improve development? (3)
- farmers can be educated on new technologies or research into new agricultural practice. This can pass down into an individual’s practice, which could improve productivity and crop yield
- individuals may wish to improve their qualifications to progress in their employment. This enables them to earn a higher wage and so they can afford to improve their quality of life.
- For parents on low income, by attending night school and improving their earnings, they may also affect their child’s education; instead of working to contribute to the family’s income, children can attend primary education and so improve their future earnings and opportunities.
37
Define primary education
Standard education across the entire population, up to the age of 11. Teaches basic reading and writing abilities.
38
How can primary education improve development? (2)
- Education can improve the health of a population. If someone can read, they can educate themselves on illnesses and be able to read medicine instructions. If they suffer from fewer illnesses, a family can continue to earn and so afford a better quality of life.
- Especially for girls, basic education can educate young people on contraception and health. In some countries, sexual health is biased when taught by parents, so a child follows their religion, decisions or traditions. Instead, primary education can provide an unbiased opinion which can help decisions made about family planning.
39
Define further education
Institutes such as colleges and universities that provide specialist education to 16 - 24 year olds (on average)
40
How can further education improve development? (3)
- A workforce will have to be skilled to attract high-income opportunities and technical TNCs. Locations can build a reputation for their skilled workforce.
- The expansion of a country’s quaternary industry depends on a young population, educated in specialist technical subjects at degree level.
- The knowledge gained by employees by working for quaternary TNCs may be passed down into households, where more of the population can repair & operate household appliances which can significantly improve quality of life.
41
Examples of barriers to education (3)
- Gender inequality is the predominant reason why many children don’t attend primary or secondary education. Some interpret their religion or traditions to deem that girls aren’t capable or shouldn’t mix with boys.
- Many families in developing countries prevent their children from attending school, instead sending them to work from an early age.
- Other factors - epidemics, conflict or corrupt governments - can also restrict school attendance and the ability for schools to provide education
42
Describe the relationship between economic and social development
- If a country has more income they have more money to invest in areas which can improve the social wellbeing of its population.
- For example, they may spend money developing healthcare which, over time, will improve the health of its population (which can lead to an increasingly productive workforce) and also increase the life expectancy of the country.
- Investment in education will help to increase literacy rates and therefore create a workforce which is more able to become skilled
43
Different approaches to improving social development (3)
- welfare states
- totalitarian regimes aim to improve efficiency and then economic development
- IGOs can aid economic development and rebuilding countries
44
Aims of the UN (3)
○ Human rights
○ Peace & serenity
○ Social advancement
45
What are the MDGs?
- Millennium Development Goals
- ran from 2000 to 2015
- put into place as a framework for development for emerging countries and for developed countries to provide assistance
46
MDGs (8)
○ Eradicate Poverty and Hunger
○ Universal Primary Education
○ Combat AIDs, HIV, Malaria and other diseases
○ Develop Global Partnerships for Development
○ Promote Gender Equality
○ Reduce Infant Mortality
○ Improve Maternal Health
○ Encourage Environmental Sustainability
47
Have the MDGs been successful in eradicating extreme poverty and hunger?
- People living on less than $1.25 has halved
- 1 in 8 still remain in hunger and malnourishment
48
Have the MDGs been successful in achieving universal primary education?
- primary education enrolment increased by 7%
- 1 in 10 children still not receiving primary education
49
Have the MDGs been successful in eradicating HIV and malaria?
- HIV and malaria deaths reduced by 40%
- every hour 50 young women get HIV
50
Describe the SDGs
- Sustainable development goals
- 17 goals
- replaced the MDGs in 2015
- to be achieved by 2030
51
What are SAPs?
- In order to secure a loan from the IMF, a country must follow a set of reforms known as Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs).
- These force the state to play a reduced role in the economy and in social welfare, such as through privatisation and reducing government spending on healthcare and education.
52
Criticisms of the IMF's SAPs
- Often TNCs benefit the most from privatisation, with poorer communities seeing little change
- Reduced government spending means many suffer unemployment, job insecurity, rising prices, and reduced access to services
- SAPs can threaten national sovereignty
- Some argue SAPs are a form of neocolonialism
53
What are PRSPs and how do they affect development?
- PRSPs- Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers- documents required by the IMF and world bank before a country can be considered for debt relief
- The process encourages countries to develop a more poverty-focused government.
- The IMF’s poverty reduction programme, means that countries are now required to develop their own medium-term development plans to receive aid, loans and debt relief.
54
Environmental impacts of the World Trade Organisation
- Free trade has often ignored environmental considerations
- Many criticise the WTO’s philosophy that the most important economic objective is the maximisation of GDP.
- In an era of global warming and potential environmental disaster, increasing GDP may be the least important. Arguably the WTO should do more to promote environmental considerations.
- In the absence of proper environmental regulation and resource management, increased trade might cause so much adverse damage that the gains from trade would be less than the environmental costs.
55
What is the GPE?
- global partnership for education
- world bank is a founding member
- A Multi-stakeholder partnership and funding platform, that aims to strengthen education systems in developing countries, in order to dramatically increase the number of children who are in school learning.
56
Describe the World Bank's climate action plan
- A new initiative launched by the World Bank in 2016, that aims to help developing countries add renewable energy to the world’s energy capacity.
- They also aim to provide flooding early warning systems for 100 million people and develop investment in agriculture for 40 countries by 2020.
- Climate change has been recognised as a threat to global efforts to end global poverty and this is the World Bank’s new strategy to end poverty.
57
Describe the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
● 30 articles set out in 1948 based on the rights of freedom & justice
● Has become the basis of International Law and countries are expected to adhere to all of the articles
● The UDHR has been criticised as favouring Western values and forcibly trying to change other traditional cultures
58
Examples of countries that did not sign the UDHR in 1948 (3)
- USSR because it felt that the declaration did not condemn fascism and Nazism sufficiently
- South Africa to protect its system of apartheid
- Saudi Arabia because of the article that everyone has the right 'to change their religion or belief'
59
Describe the ECHR
- European Convention on Human Rights
- European Court of Human Rights developed ECHR as a follow on to the UDHR with similar aims to promote democracy, integration & freedom.
- 14 articles of which there are 47 signatories to promote unity in Europe
60
Examples of ECHR articles
- right to life
- prohibition of slavery and torture
- right to a fair trial
- freedom of expression
61
Criticisms of the ECHR
- some believe that it undermines national sovereignty with the European Court overruling the decision of national courts
- However, international courts are good for individuals who believe their government should be held accountable to an action of decision.
- With countries claiming it negatively impacts their sovereignty, several countries have drafted their own rights laws
62
Describe the 1998 UK human rights act
- incorporates into British law the rights set out in the ECHR. If a person's rights are breached in the UK they can now take their case to a British court rather than the European Court
- it requires all bodies carrying out public functions to respect and protect human rights
- parliament tries to ensure that any new laws are compatible with the ECHR
63
Describe the Geneva Convention
- The Geneva Convention is a set of international rules that apply in war situations that protect:
○ Civilians
○ Wounded armed forces
○ Prisoners of war
○ Shipwrecked navy forces
- Ratified into international law by 196 states worldwide including Russia, Iraq & North Korea.
- The UN Security Council is ultimately the final decision maker on any complaints or incidents.
64
Alternative approaches to human rights (5)
● Social progression in the West has created a focus on civil and political rights
● Attitudes in the east and communist countries still focus on the priority of economic and cultural rights
● Different countries & populations will have different viewpoints depending on the progression of their country. Many developing/emerging countries can choose to prioritise economic and political stability
● Globalised communication is making detrimental attitudes to human rights more prevalent in the news which creates public pressure for governments to act and intervene.
● Authoritarian & Democratic countries have differing attitudes to the protection of human rights.
65
What proportion of global GDP is spent corruptly?
5%
66
How does corruption hinder development? (3)
● Money lost to corruption could instead be spent on the provision of services and infrastructure, which could: Improve health and social well-being, Attract businesses, and Improve safety and reduce levels of crime
● Corruption threatens human rights enforcement since politicians may exploit their people to remain in power or businesses bribe the government to exploit workers or the environment.
● Corruption severely impact the level of trust between the population and their government.
67
Who does political corruption impact the most?
Political corruption impacts the poorest in society, which creates greater inequality between the different levels of society.
68
Describe priority countries
- The British Human Rights Report sets out priority countries to target to ensure equality and the following of human rights globally.
- Priority countries tend to be notorious for modern slavery, discrimination against women and homophobic attitudes, with little done to change these issues.
69
Changing attitudes to gender equality in developed countries
- Developed countries have now progressed towards aiming for equal opportunities, recognition and pay for men and women after years of oppression of women.
- There are still industries were gender equality is difficult or there are few women employed (such as STEM) or male employees (such as nursing & midwifery).
- Cultural shifts and changes in attitudes have created pressure on emerging societies to conform and create a more equal society for women
70
Describe development aid
- Development Aid is usually provided to poorer countries in the form of a subsidy to support growth and development.
- LEDCs may also receive help in their infrastructure, but if local contractors aren't used, the positive consequences are limited.
71
Describe trade embargos
- restrictions on a specific country against the movement of goods or people.
- An embargo is often against a country with controversial policies or who trade openly in dangerous good or weapons
72
Describe military aid
- Military Aid usually supports a country through investment or weapons to assist them in the defence of their country, rather than for those that wish to impose conflict.
- Military Action has become less common.
- Instead, states offer full military support to help construct infrastructure, rebuild after conflict or train domestic forces.
73
Describe disaster aid
- Disaster Aid is the most common form of intervention, and can be given following a natural disaster or threats due to climate change.
- Since natural disaster occur more often in Caribbean, Asian or Oceanic countries, these states tend to receive the most disaster aid.
- Donations can be made from a government or NGO.
74
Under what circumstances do interventions usually take place?
- Interventions are encouraged when human rights are violated.
- Interventions may not always be direct force, but a removal of aid that a country relies on to encourage them to remove these attitudes from their culture (e.g. cutting aid to corrupt countries to force government to change)
- Political interventions are perceived to only occur when it is beneficial to a nation in an effort to maintain their power in a region, or to uphold their ideology.
75
How does military action affect development?
- Military action tends to have negative impacts on economic growth in the short term whilst conflict occurs.
- Countries experiencing conflict or military intervention become much more unstable and so any foreign investment may be deterred or lost.
- However, intervention may be necessary to remove corrupt governments and politicians, which will lead to increased development in the future (if a stable government can be established)
76
How does military intervention affect human rights?
- Human Rights may not be followed during killings and huntings for certain criminals of war.
- The protection of human rights are dependant on all parties involved which is difficult during times of war.
- Restriction of necessities such as water and foods may make human rights impossible to fulfil and often lead to dire quality of life for those caught in conflict.
77
Evidence that aid and intervention help development (2)
- UN peacekeepers can help build infrastructure, schools, hospitals, etc.
- Political stability after military intervention can lead to reconstruction and economic growth
78
Evidence that aid and intervention hinder development (2)
- Governments may become reliant on help, and won't invest in their own interventions.
- Conflict will destroy facilities & infrastructure, increasing a country's debt.
79
Evidence that aid and intervention help human rights (3)
- Direct Military action can remove authoritarian powers, hence enabling to improve and develop.
- Immediate medical support will reduce fatalities and improve wellbeing.
- Some conflicts can be avoided and threats reduced by military presence
80
Evidence that aid and intervention hinder human rights (2)
- Military influence is limited in how they can influence a population's culture or ideology - they can't stop arranged marriages or discrimination.
- Direct military intervention can lead to a loss (permanent or temporary) of protection of human rights.
81
Evidence that aid and intervention are effective (3)
- Some NGOs run self-help schemes and localised efforts, which are successful in improving development.
- Intervention can lead to improved safety, development and quality of life for a population.
- Government intervention tends to be far more effective than NGO charity programmes, as they have more authority and international influence
82
Evidence that aid and intervention are ineffective (4)
- Aid and intervention is often based on Western ideology. Countries who don't share these views can be seen as undeveloped
- UN Security Council determine the UN’s aid. There is a lack of attachment to the country in need during decision making.
- Often, those who need the aid don't receive it. Governments are bias towards ally countries and IGOs only give aid to their members.
- NGOs may provide insensitive supplies
