Intro To Clinical Anatomy Flashcards
Systemic anatomy
Organized by organ systems
Regional anatomy
Organization of body into parts
Locomotor system
Skeletal, articular, and muscular systems
Integumentary system
Skin and it’s appendages such as hair and nails
Skeletal system
Bones and cartilage
Support and protection
Muscular system
Consists of muscles
Articular system
Consists of joints and associated ligaments
Nervous system
CNS (brain and spinal cord) and pns (nerves and ganglia)
Circulatory system
Cardiovascular system: heart and blood vessels
Lymphoid system: consists of a network of lymphatic vessels that withdraw excess tissue fluid from the body’s interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes and returns it to the blood stream
Digestive or alimentary system
Organs and glands associated with ingestion, mastication, deglutition (swallowing) digestion, and absorption of food and elimination of feces
Respiratory system
Consists of air passages and lungs that supply oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide
Urinary system
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Reproductive system
Obstetrics and gynecology, andrology for males
Endocrinology
Discrete ductless glands and other cells
Clinical (applied) anatomy
Aspects of the structure and function of body
Encompasses both regional and systemic approaches
Median or median sagittal plane
Vertical plane passing longitudinally through center of body dividing into right and left halves
Sagittal planes
Vertical planes passing through parallel to the median plane
Frontal (coronal) plane
Vertical planes dividing into anterior and posterior
Transverse planes or axial
Divides into superior and inferior
Inferomedial
Nearer to the feet, closer to the median plane
Superolateral
Nearer to head and farther from median plane
Dorsum
Refers to superior or dorsal (back) surface of any part that protrudes anteriorly from the body
Ipsilateral
Same side of body
Contralateral
Opposite side of body
Superficial
Nearer to surface
Intermediate
Between a superficial and deep structure
Deep
Farther from surface
Medial
Nearer to median plane
Lateral
Farther from median plane
Posterior or dorsal
Nearer to back
Inferior or caudal
Nearer to feet
Anterior or ventral
Nearer to front
Distal
Farther from trunk or point of origin
Proximal
Nearer to trunk or point of origin
Skin provides
Protection for the body
Containment of tissues. Organs and vital substances of the body, preventing dehydration
Heat regulation through sweat glands, blood vessels and fat deposits
Sensation
Synthesis and storage of vitamin d
Epidermis
Keratinized stratified epithelium
Avascular
Replaced every 25-45 days
Afferent nerve endings
Dermis
Dense layer of interlacing collagen and elastic fibers
Fibers provide skin tone and account for strength and toughness of skin
Direction of collagen fibers
Determines tension or cleavage lines and wrinkle lines
Deep layer of dermis
Hair follicles with associated smooth arrector muscles and sebaceous glands
Subcutaneous tissue or superficial fascia
Loose connective tissue and fat
Between dermis and deep fascia
Deepest parts of sweat glands, blood and lymphatic vessels, cutaneous nerves
Skin ligaments
Retinacula cutis
Extend through subcutaneous tissue and attach deep surface of dermis to deep fascia
Deep fascia
Dense, organized connective tissue layer devoid of fat that envelops most of the body deep to the skin and subcutaneous surface
Invest deeper structures: investing fascia
Divide muscles into groups: inter muscular septa
Lie between musculoskeletal walls and serous membranes lining body cavities: sub serous fascia
Retinacula
Formed by deep fascia
Hold tendons in place during joint movement
Bursae
Closed sacs containing fluid
Formed by deep fascia
Prevent friction and enable structures to move freely over another
Fascial planes
Potential spaces between adjacent fascias or fascia lined structures
Axial skeleton
Head, neck and trunk
Cranium or skull, cervical vertebrae, ribs, sternum, vertebrae and sacrum
Appendicular skeleton
Bones of limbs including those of pectoral and pelvic girdles
Bone provides
Protection Support Mechanical basis for movement Storage for salts like calcium Blood cells
Cartilage
Semirigid avascular connective tissue
Articular cartilage
Cap articulating surfaces of bones participating in a synovial joint
Periosteum
Fibrous connective tissue covering surrounding bone
Perichondrium
Surrounding cartilage elements excluding articular cartilage
Structure of bones
Superficial layer of compact bone on top of spongy or trabecular or cancellous bone except where it is replaced by medullary cavity
Compact bone
Provides strength for weight bearing
In long bones designed for rigidity and attachment of muscles and ligaments, compact bone is most in middle of shaft
Heterotopic bones
Bones form in soft tissues
Long bones
Tubular structures like humerus and phalanges
Short bones
Cuboidal and found only in ankle and wrist
Flat bones
Seve protective functions like those of cranium
Irregular bones
Those in face
Condyle
Rounded articular area
Sesamoid bones
Develop in certain tendons like patella
Crest
Ridge of bone
Epicondyle
Eminence superior to a condyle
Facet
Smooth flat area, usually covered with cartilage here a bone articulates with another bone
Foramen
Passage through a bone
Fossa
Hollow or depressed area
Line or linea
Linear elevation
Malleolus
Rounded prominence
Notch
Indentation at the edge of a bone
Process
Projecting spine like part
Protuberance
Projection of bone
Spine
Thorn like process
Trochanter
Large, blunt elevation
Tubercle
Small, raised eminence
Tuberosity
Large rounded elevation
collar of callus
fibroblasts create it by secreting collagen in the repair of a fracture to hold the bones together
In general, how are bones developed?
All bones derived from mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue) by intramembranous ossification (directly from mesenchyme) and endochondral ossification (from cartilage derived from mesenchyme)
Intramembranous ossification
Mesenchymal models of bone form during the embryonic period and direct ossification of the mesenchyme begins in the fetal period
endochondral ossification
cartilage models of bones form from mesenchyme during the fetal period, and bone subsequently replaces most of the cartilage
How long bones grow
Endochondral ossification
Mesenchymal cells condense and differentiate into chondroblasts
form cartilaginous bone model
in middle of bone model, cartilage calcifies and periosteal capillaries grow into the calcified cartilage
capillaries initiate primary ossification center
secondary ossification centers appear in other parts of developing bone after birth
at end of growth, primary and secondary fuse and epiphyseal plate is lost
periosteal bud
periosteal capillaries with the associated osteogenic cells
diaphysis
shaft of a bone ossified from primary ossification center
epiphyses
ossified from secondary ossification centers
metaphysis
flared part of diaphysis nearest to epiphysis
epiphyseal plate
cartilage that intervenes between diaphysis and epiphysis during growth
epiphyseal line
fusion of diaphysis and epiphysis
synostosis
process of fusion of epiphyseal plate
nutrient arteries
one or more per bone
arise outside periosteum, pass through shaft of long bone via nutrient foramina and split in the medullary cavity into longitudinal branches
nutrient arteries supply
bone marrow, spongy bone and deeper portions of compact bone
periosteal arteries
small branches supply most of compact bone
metaphysial and epiphyseal arteries
supply ends of bones. arise mainly from arteries that supply the joints
veins
acoompany arteries through nutrient foramina. many large veins leave through foramina near articular ends of bones
periosteal nerves
periosteum richly supplied with sensory nerves (periosteal nerves) that carry pain fibers
vasomotor nerves
cause constriction of dilation of blood vessels, regulating blood flow through the bone marrow
accessory bones
also called supernumerary bones
additional ossification centers appear and form extra bones. on of centers fails to fuse with main bone, giving appearance of an extra bone, but is a missing part of the main bone
common in the foot
criteria for determining bone age
appearance of calcified material in diaphysis and or epiphyses
disappearance of dark line representing the epiphyseal plate
fusion of epiphyses with the diaphysis occurs
1 to 2 years earlier in girls than in boys
separation of epiphysis
displaced epiphyseal plate can occur in children as opposed to a fracture in an adult
avascular necrosis
death of bone tissue due to a loss of blood supply to an epiphysis or other parts pof a bone
after every fracture, small areas of adjacent bone undergo necrosis
degenerative joint disease
articulation becomes vulnerable to repeated friction that occurs during joint movements
joint
an articulation or the lace of union or junction between two or more rigid components
three types of joints
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
fibrous joints
united by fibrous tissue
syndesmosis, gomphosis
syndesmosis
type of fibrous joint that unites bones with a sheet of fibrous tissue, either a ligament of fibrous membrane. partially moveable
gomphosis
dento-alveolar syndesmosis
type of fibrous joint in which a peg like fibrous process stabilizes a tooth and provides proprioceptive information
cartilaginous joints
articulating structures are united by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
synchondroses
symphyses
primary cartilaginous joints
synchondroses
united by hyaline cartilage.
permit growth of the length of the bone and allow slight bending during early life until the epiphyseal plate converts to bone and epiphysis fuses with diaphysis
secondary cartilaginous joints
symphyses
strong, slightly mobile joints united by fibrocartilage
synovial joints
articular cavity is a potential space that contains synovial fluid
most common type
usually reinforced by accessory ligaments
synovial fluid
serves dual function of nourishing articular cartilage and lubricating joint surface
other distinguishing characteristics of synovial joints
fibrocartilaginous articular discs
menisci
present when articulating surfaces of bones are incongrous
articular arteries
arise from vessels around joint and feed it
anastomose (communicate) to form networks (peri-articular arterial anastomoses) which ensure a continuous blood supply
articular veins
communicating veins that accompany the arteries and like the arteries, are located in the joint capsule, mostly in the synovial membrane
articular nerves
in the distal parts of limbs, branches of cutaneous nerves supplying the overlying skin
otherwise, most are branches of nerves that supply the muscles that cross and therefore move the joint
Hilton law
nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles moving the joint and the skin covering the attachments
pain fibers in synovial joints
numerous in the fibrous layer of the joint capsule and associated ligaments
synovial membrane relatively insensitive
types of synovial joints
pivot, ball and socket, plane, hinge, saddle, condyloid
pivot joint
uniaxial
rounded process of bone fits into a bony ligamentous socket, permitting rotation
atlanto-axial joint
ball and socket joint
multiaxial
rounded head fits into a concavity, permitting movement on several aces
hip joint
plane joint
usually uniaxial
permit gliding or sliding movements
acromioclavicular joint
hinge joint
uniaxial
permit flexion and extension only
elbow joint
saddle joint
biaxial
saddle shaped heads permit movement in two different planes
carpometacarpal joint
condyloid joint
biaxial
permit flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, circumduction
metacarpophalangeal joint
Muscle fibers
muscle cells
called so because long and narrow when relaxed
specialized contractile cells
Fascicles
associated connective tissue conveys nerve fibers and capillaries to muscle fibers as it binds them
skeletal muscle function
moves bones and other structures
static support
give form to body
provide heat
cardiac striated muscle function
forms most of walls of heart and adjacent parts of the great vessels
smooth muscle function
forms part of walls of most vessels and hollow organs
moves substances through viscera such as intestine and controls movement through blood vessels
structure of skeletal muscle
fleshy contractile portion (one or more heads or bellies) composed of skeletal striated muscle
noncontractile portion composed mainly of collagen bundles
collagen bundles of skeletal muscle
tendons: rounded
aponeuroses: flat sheets
length of a muscle
include bellies and tendons
pennate muscles
feather like in arrangement of their fascicles (fiber bundles)
unipennate, bipennate, multipennate
fusiform muscles
spindle shaped
round, thick belly, tapered ends
parallel muscles
fascicles lie parallel to long axis of muscle
flat muscles with parallel fibers often have aponeuroses
convergent muscles
broad attachment from which the fascicles converge to a single tendon
circular muscles
surround a body opening or orifice constricting it when contracted
digastric muscles
feature two bellies in series sharing a common intermediate tendon
shortening of muscles
when contract, shorten to about 70% of resting length
long parallel fascicles shorten the most
muscle power increases
as number of cells increases
most powerful muscles
shorter, wide pennate muscles
reflexive contraction
automatic and not voluntary
respiratory movements of the diaphragm
muscle stretch evokes reflexive contraction produced by tapping a tendon with a reflex hammer
tonic contraction
slight contraction (muscle tone) that does not produce movement or active resistance but gives the muscle firmness assisting the stability of joints and the maintenence of posture
phasic contraction
isometric contractions: muscle length remains the same: no movement but muscle tension is increased above tonic levels
isotonic contractions: muscle changes length to produce movement
isotonic contractions
concentric contraction: muscle shortening
eccentric contraction: progressive relaxation of a contracted muscle
structural unit of a muscle
muscle fiber
endomysium
covers individual muscle fibers
perimysium
surrounds group of fibers
epimysium
entire muscle surrounded
functional unit of a muscle
motor unit: motor neuron and muscle fibers
prime mover or agonist
main muscle responsible for producing a specific movement of the body
fixators
steady the proximal parts of a limb while movements are occuring in distal parts
synergist
complements the action of prime movers
for example, by preventing movement of the intervening joint when a prime mover passes over more than one joint
antagonist
a muscle that opposes the action of a prime mover. as prime mover contracts, antagonist progressively relaxes, producing a smooth movement
myocardium
forms muscular wall of heart, made of cardiac striated muscle
smooth muscle
absence of microscopic striations
forms large part of middle coat or layer (tunica media) of the walls of most blood vessels and muscular part of wall of digestive tract and ducts
innervated by ANS
found in arrectors in skin and in the eyeball;
muscle testing
- active: resist movements performed by examiner
2. examiner performs movements against resistance
electromyography
EMG
surface electrodes over a muscle and perform movements
tonus: baseline activity
compensatory hypertrophy
myocardium responds to increasing demands by increasing size of cells
smooth muscle cells also do so during pregnancy in uterus
hypertrophy
increase in size
hyperplasia
increase in number
pulmonary circulation
right heart propels low oxygen blood returned to it into the lungs where carbon dioxide is exchanged for oxygen
systemic circulation
oxygen rich blood returned to the left heart is pumped to the remainder of the body, exchanging oxygen and nutrients for carbon dioxide
order of blood vessels
arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, IVC, SVC
tunics of vessels of circulatory system
tunica intima: thin endothelial lining of vessels
tunica media: middle smooth muscle layer
tunica adventitia: outer connective tissue coat
conducting arteries
large elastic arteries
have many elastic layers in their walls
aorta and branches from arch of aorta
elasticity allows maintenence of blood pressure because return to normal between cardiac contractions
distributing arteries
medium muscular arteries
walls that contain mostly smooth muscle, circularly arranged
femoral artery
ability to decrease diameter regulates flow of blood to different parts of body
small arteries and arterioles
relatively narrow lumina and thick muscular walls
arterial pressure in vascular system regulated by degree of tonus in the smooth muscle of arteriolar walls
veins
return poorly oxygenated blood to heart from capillary beds
walls are thinner than those of companion arteries
venous plexuses
venules unite to form larger veins that usually form plexuses
dorsal venous arch of foot
medium veins
in limbs and other location where the flow of blood is opposed by pull of gravity with valves that permit blood to flow toward the heart but not in reverse direction
large veins
SVC and IVC
characterized by wide bundles of longitudinal smooth muscle and a well developed tunica adventitia
systemic veins
more variable than arteries and more frequently form anastomoses
vascular sheath
veins that accompany deep arteries (accompanying veins) surround them in a branching network and occupy a relatively unyielding vascular sheath with artery they accompany
anastomoses
communications between multiple branches of an artery provide numerous potentisl detous for blood flow
collateral circulation
ensures blood supply to structures distal to blockage
terminal arteries
arteries that do not anastomose with adjacent arteries
functional terminal arteries
arteries with ineffectual anastomoses
suppl segments of brain, liver, kidney, spleen and intestines
arteriosclerosis
hardening of arteries
group of diseases characterized by thickening and loss of elasticity of arterial walls
atherosclerosis
common form of arteriosclerosis associated with buildup of fat (cholesterol) in arterial walls
atheromatous plaque
calcium deposits form it, resulting in arterial narrowing and irregularity
varicose veins
abnormally swollen, twisted veins, most often seen in the legs
walls of veins lose their elasticity, become weak and dilate under pressure of supporting a column of blood against gravity
valve cusps do not meet or have been destroyed by inflammation. incompetent valves, column of blood ascending toward heart is unbroken, placing increased pressure on weakened walls of veins and exacerbating varicosities
capillaries
simple endothelial tubes connecting arterial and venous sides of circulation
capillary beds
networks between arterioles and venules
arteriovenous anastomoses (AV shunts)
sites of communications between small arteries and veins proximal to capillary beds like in fingers
permit blood to pass directly from arterial to venous side of circulation without passing through capillaries
numerous in skin, have impt role in conserving body heat
lymphatic system
provides for drainage of surplus tissue fluid and leaked plasma proteins to bloodstream and for removal of cellular debris and infection
lymph
surplus extracellular tissue fluid
clear and watery and similar in composition to blood plasma
lymphatic plexuses
networks of lymphatic capillaries that originate in extracellular spaces of most tissues
lymphatic vessels (lymphatics)
body wide network of thin walled vessels with abundant valves originating from lymphatic plexuses along which lymph nodes are located
occur almost everywhere blood capillaries are found except teeth, bone, bone marrow and entire CNS
lymph nodes
small masses of lymphatic tissue through which lymph is filtered on its way to venous system
lymphocytes
circulating cells of immune system that react against foreign materials
lymphoid organs
sits that produce lymphocytes
spleen, thymus, lymph nodes
walls of digestive tract
myeloid tissue in red bone marrow
right lymphatic duct
drains lymph from bodys right upper quadrant (right side of head, neck and thorax and entire right upper limb)
ends in right subclavian vein at its angle of juncton with right internal jugular vein at right venous angle
thoracic duct
drains lymph from reminder of body
begins in abdomen as cisterna chyli
ascends through thorax and enters junction of left internal jugular and left subclavian veins called left venous angle
lymphangitis
refer to secondary inflammation of lymphatic vessels
occurs during metastisis of cancer
lymphadenitis
refer to secondary inflammation of lymph nodes
occurs during metastisis of cancer
lymphedema
accumulation of interstitial fluid
lymph not drained from an area of body
if lymph nodes removed
additional functions of lymphatic system
absorption and transport of dietary fat through lacteals which receive chyle from intestine and convey it through thoracic duct to venous system
formation of defense mechanism for the body
lacteals
specialized lymphatic capillaries that receive absorbed fat
