2.2- Liberalism

Question 1

WHERE DOES LIBERALISM ORIGINATE

Answer 1

Liberalism emerged as a reaction to monarchy rules and provide of the upper classes. It reflected the educated middle classes views for wider liberties and oppertunities. It was part of the enlightenment, a movement that rejected traditional social, political and religious ideas and stressed the power of reason and importance of tolerance, all while being free from tyranny.

They wanted to abolish traditional restrictions on freedom and held that potential is different, but everyone is equal in rights. People should be free to take their own decisions to make the most of their talents and opportunities.

This sentiment was shown in the declaration of indolence stating that ‘we hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

Question 2

What is individualism? How can it be interpreted? What there ideas are there around it?

Answer 2

LIBERS STRESS THE importance of the individual over the claims of any social group of body.

Many said that all individuals are unique and have equal worth; they are an ends, not a means. Never regard as just an intrinsic value. He said this was a categorical imperative.- a moral requirement to perform an action for its own sake, rather than for any gain.

Individualism can be interpreted in two ways.
- Classics see it as egoistic individualism- people are self seeking and self reliant. this minimises the importance of society, it being merely a collection of self seeking individuals.

Another idea is development individualism- plays down the pursuit of self interest and used to justify support for some intervention

An idea linked to it is one of tolerance- a natural right, not to be taken away Originally it was for religion, but today it extends further, fir example same sex marriage

Question 3

What are liberal beliefs on freedom and liberty

Answer 3

Freedom is the most important of all liberal values. They originally rejected authoritarian governments that claimed a right to make decisions on belief of people and to regulate people.

They did recognise freedom cannot be absolute- it has to exist oder law, not interfering with others rights. This why Locke claimed that “the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom… where there is no law there is not freedom”

This concert was central to the ideas of utilitarianism. ITs leading thinking Jeremy Bentham painted that people can decide on their own interests, arguing that man actions are motivated by a desire fir pleasure and avoidance of pain. Governments should not sop people doing what the want, unless there actions threaten others freedom. This is a mechanistic of human behaviour, thinking people are driven by self interest. when applied it sees ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’ as the primary motivation for people,however it often excludes minority views.

Question 4

What are positive and negative freedoms?

Answer 4

Mill saw the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as too simple, rather putting forward an idea of negative freedom forward. individuals should only be subject to external restraint when their actions affect not only themselves.

Many started to see this as too limited. T.H. Green agued society was an organic whole in which people pursue the common good as well as own interest. Both social and individual ideas are combined. The idea of positive freedom came about- people should be able to control their destiny to develop person talents. Some state intervention is needed to make this possible.

Question 5

How is the state a necessary evil, In liberal thinking? what do they believe about the concentration of power

Answer 5

there is a complex relationship here. Liberals accept the need for a state, to avert disorder protect the vulnerable. However they do not trust the power, as human are self seeking so many will pursue their own interests. They oppose the concentration of power, as it gives greater incentive of the benefit of ones self . This idea was summaries by Lord Acton ‘Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely”

As a result, liberals argue for a limited government , with checks and balances on the exercise of power. They argue for constitutionalism- the idea of a government where power is distributed and limited by law. This expresses itself in the separation of powers- usually between the three branches of government; legislature, executive and judiciary. Each part is given some power over the other and act to check abuses of power, as in the US constitution. As a result they favour a bill of rights, which provides clear rights and the state- for example the US.

Their suspicion of the concentration of power often leads them to support devolution- that occurred in Scotland and Wales and NI. An alternative is federalism, a number of states form a union under central government, while each state retains responsibility for its own affairs.

The liberal emphasis on a limited govenrmtn has led to some to believe in laissez- faire economics. Adam smith encompassed this idea in the Wealth of nations saying “t is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard for their own interest.

Question 6

What is the liberal belief in rationalism

Answer 6

This is at the heard of enlightenment thinking- the belief in human reason.

Individuals should be free to exercise their judgment about their own interests, without needing to be guided by external authorities, such as the state or church lenders. People will not always be right, but is better to talk responsibility than direction.
They were encouraged by scientific development, which pushed the boundaries of human understanding. and liberated popped from blind faith in authority and tradition.

Faith in reason is liked to a progressive society, in which the person development of the individual promotes wider social advancement.

Question 7

How can rationalism be seen in action

Answer 7

Liberals accept competition leads to conflict, but they favour debate and discussion to resolve disputes.

Late 19th century liners were at the forefront of the fight to develop industrial aberration- this meant a neutral third party would mediate between employers and trade unions, to stop legal action and strikes

Similarly in IR liberals view war as a last resort, to be avoided if possible. Many were at the front of the UN- which sought to bring together countries. Many support the EU on the grounds that we benefit through being cohesive.

Question 8

what are liberal beliefs about equality and social justice? How is it criticised?How do views differ?

Answer 8

Liberals put emphasis on equality of opportunity. Differing outcomes rely on potential- they should BE free to reach it.

Traditionally it is based on a belief of foundational equality which implies a brief in formal equality -people should all have the same legal ad political rights ensured by law and voting rights in fair elections.

Socialists often criticise this as it does not tackle inequality, as it based on the capitalist idea of competition. They would rather use the state, but liberals disagree as they believe different talents would be rewarded differently. THIs is called a Meritocracy- Gladstone tried to ensure this in examinations to enter the civil service and trying to make an end to appointments base on connections

Until the 20th century, liberals did not extend all the same rights to men as women. Wollstonecraft agued women are no less rational than man, and thus are entitled to the same rights. This is something modern liberals opt for- social justice. Obama showed this is allowing trans students to use the bathroom of their choice.

There are differences. most modern liberals agree she state intervention is needed to allow for true equality. However, total equality is not the outcome of this. Rawls trued to bridge this difference

Question 9

What is a liberal democracy? WHY DO THEY SUPPORT IT?

Answer 9

IT involves

• Free and fair elections
• Limitations on the power of the state, acting as a neutral arbiter between different interests
• Respect for civil liberties and toleration of different viewpoints.

The consent is central to liberalism- with tit the government lacks its legitimacy.

THEY SUPPORT DEMOCRACY as it allows citizens to hold governments to account. It extends participation to and performs an education function, that allow for further development. It gives a political voice. Promotes consensus and underpins stability, giving balance to the system.

However in some ways they fear it, as it may lead to the tyranny of the majority surpassing minority rights and freedoms. May even create dull conformism. Mill proposed allocating more votes t the educated- this isn’t really supported today. Rather they support a democracy , limited though a constitutional framework and individual rights are protected. The sectoral college acts as this, party as a buffer against manipulate of the masses by campaigners, rather choosing electors.

Question 10

What is a social contract

Answer 10

The idea that between people and their rulers there us an agreement were people give up some of their freedom, consenting to be governed. There have the right to rebel

Question 11

Summarise liberal beliefs and devisions in and about human nature

Answer 11

This acts as the starting point for liberals- the importance of the individual.- people are capable of piercing their own best interests and pursuing the best decision.They stress the positive potential of human nature. People should be free to make the most of their talent- they should, in the classical liberal belief, only be limited when there is a risk of threatening the freedom of others. Modern liberals are more conscious of social injustice and favour some external intervention.

Question 12

Summarise the beliefs and differences in and about the state

Answer 12

The social contract acts as a central aspect here- the state runs on a consent and agreement, giving up some freedom for security.

They want a limit government, with checks and balances to stop the abuse of power. They do not want the state to despite people of their liberties, so they often support decentralisation of power.

Question 13

Summarise the key beliefs and differences in and about society

Answer 13

Classical liberals downplay its importance, seeing its a collection of individuals, perusing their own interests, They rather a meritocracy and foundational equality (ensured through formal equality) .

Modern liberals do not see this as enough- freedom i needed, but society is more than just a cum of its parts. For example the state is needed to stop poverty and enable people to develop with minimal equality

Question 14

Summarise the key beliefs and differences in and about the economy

Answer 14

Classical liberalism’s emphasis on the individual leads to a belief in free market capitalism- the idea that the economy is best served by a limited state.

Modern liners see a need for state intervention, seeking it necessary ti promote sustainable growth.

Question 15

what are the different types of liberals

Answer 15

Classic liberalism is the earliest form of the ideology and is associated with the rise of industrial capitalism. Followers prized freedom above all else and believed this could only be ached through restricting the power of the government. This was re-immagned under neoliberalism.

Modern liberals emerged as a result of free market capitalism. It wanted to regulate the market to counter excessive deprivation and inequality. They do not believe that people cn be truly free is simply left alone

Question 16

How do modern and classical liberals differ in their beliefs about freedom

Answer 16

Both sides value freedom, but disagree over its nature. Classical liberals believe n negative freedom a principal liked to the idea of freedom of choice. It can be explained bu restraining free power. it also leads to a brief in egoistical individualism.

This logic leads to a rolling back of the state, to allow for greater responsibility. Self reliance is a key virtue for classical liberals. Dependence on the state is damaging as it undermines the self respect of the individual and rids of enterprise.

this links to todays debates about a dependancy culture- neo liberals argue social welfare should only be for those who actually need it.

However, modern liberals argue negative freedom is not enough. People need assistance to truly be free. Positive freedom is a self master or realisation. It can be explained by a qualified state intervention in the state or economy to widen opportunity and liberate citizens from evils, such as poverty. they favour developmental individualism, enabling individuals to enjoy personal growth and empowerment.

Question 17

How do different liberals view the state

Answer 17

Classical and modern liberals have some common ground on the nature of the state. Both believe in the decentralisation of power and protection of civil liberties. Gladstone even tried to set up a self government un Ireland. This influenced new labour and their liberal conditional amendments. - freedom of information, devolution, human rights.

They do not revere the state- they view it through mechanistic theory- the state acts as a machine created to serve the individual. ITs parts are equal and interchangeable.

However there are some differences n how the state should act. Classical liberals believe the state should lay down the conditions for orderly existence, opting for a night watchman state. The state should not interfere with economic or personal life more than is needed, as it undermines liberty.Its role to maintain a stable framework, uphold the value of the currency and create an environment for capitalism to thrive.

SOME liberals even opted for a belief in social darwinism. They borrowed from darkens belief in natural selection, applying it to society. They thought as people have different abilities, a vacation in the extent of success is nature;/ This was seen in Herbert Spongers text The man Versus the state in which he coined the term “the survival of the state”. Those who do well are those more aptly adapted fro their economic environment. The government, therefore, should not interfere to support people.

Modern liberals believe instead in an enabling state. They arrived at this through a growing awareness of inequality and its lo way, rife unemployment and poor working conditions. New Liberals supported policies of welfare. Expressed on HH Asquith’s government before WW1, including the first old age pensions, national insurance and labour exchanges

Question 18

What was the Beveridge report

Answer 18

William Beveridge published a report in 1942 in which he argued that liberty should be available to all ad this was impossible if the population were held back  but the five giants- 
Poverty 
Lack of education 
ill health, 
poor living conditions 
unemployment 

(Want, Ignorance, Disease, Squalor, Idleness)

It had major influence on the following post war labour government. National influence, NHS, improved housing and education were all a response.

He claimed ‘ a starving man is not free because until he is fed he cannot have a thought for anything but who to meet his urgent physical needs’. .Some state intervention is needed.

IT captured a wartime desire for more equal and just society- many felt the desire and entitlement to a better standard of living. IT prised to protect people from the ‘grade to the grave’ against social justice.

HE was an advisor the to pre war liberal government, direction of LSE and master of UNIV oxford and an MP, as well as a lord

Question 19

Who was Keynes and what did he believe

Answer 19

HE was a Cambridge economist who came to attention with his book The economic consequences of peace- a critique of the allied powers treatment of Germany at Versailles, while eh was advisor to the treasury.

His most important ideas were seen in response to the great depression, where he argued that a self-regulating free marketed nit exist, and government intervention is needed to allow for sustainable growth an slow unemployment. They should prevent a slump is level of demand in economy. In his book the general eyes agued for a programme of public spending to create jobs and allow for jobs. HE even represented Britain in talks with the US to lead to the world bank and International monetary sound.

Question 20

Is modern liberalism a contraction of continuation of classic liberalism

Answer 20

There is a clear difference in the willingness to use power to promote social justice. They want to expand the freedom of the individual, under different methods. But both want to resist large government.

Similarities-

• Seek to enhance freedom
• Believe people have value and are capable of rational thought.
• Both want to limit the power of the state- a decentralisation of power is needed. The state should serve the individual and reform is needed
• Both support private ownership and capitalism.

Differences-

• Classical liberals believe in negative freedom- left alone by state. Modern argue that due to free market capitalism, not all people exam be truly free due to disadvantage.
• Classical liberal see society as a collection of people, while modern see it more holistically- a promotion of come good can ago along with personal freedom
• Classical fear stat intervention, as it may take the power out of the people and reduce self reliance. Modern liberals believe intervention is needed to allow for people to pursue their talents under fair constraints An enabling state allows for this- welfare is needed.
• Classical liberals believe in a self regulating free market, while modern see flaws in capitalism and argue that government management is needed stop minimise the effect of economic downturns which lead to mass unemployment and poverty.

Question 21

WHO IS JOHN LOCKE AND WHAT DID HE BELIVE

Answer 21

Key ideas-

• Society state and government are based on a voluntary contract
• Government should be limited ad based on consent

Locke was a leading philosopher in the Whig movement and a supporter of the glorious revolution of 1688 which entailed the replacement of catholic James U with William III and MaryII- it is the foundation of our conditional monarchy.

His most important work was the tow treatise of government where he strongly opposed the exercise of power unrestrained by law. Both rulers and people must be subject to law- without this people would be like animals left by a farmer from harming each other , but with no guarantee that the farmer himself would not harm them. This was the concept of limited government - the power should be limited and based on consent.

Locke based his ideas on natural rights and laws. People are equal in rights and must respect each others rights.Government drives its legitimacy from the people and should govern in accordance with the natural rights- it does not babe a go given right to rule

From this came this idea of a social contrast- society, states and governments are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement. We should accept the governments authority as long as it fulfils its part- protecting property rights. “the great and chief end of men hunting into commonwealths and putting themeless under government is the preservation of property. Government should exercise relies tolerance and not interfere with public ideas- if government breaks the contrast people can resist and overthrow.

It is based on reason, no person would submit to arbitrary rule he argued. It is not in peoples interests. It is a classical liberal view in which the state serves the individual. Locke did not believe in democracy and political equality in the modern sense- unclear on gender, no atheism. Emphasised the impotence of civil society and consent .

Question 22

Who is Mary Wollstonecraft and What did she believe

Answer 22

Key ideas-

• Women are rational, dependant beings capable of reason
• In order to be free, women should enjoy full ciivl liberties.

She is best known for her book a vindication of the rights of women- it represents an extension into women that is now taken for grated.

She writes at a time of a lack of female independence, when they married their property was transferred to their husband and a career was near impossible, in her words they were ‘salves.. in a political and civil sense”. She wanted formal equality to allow liberty- she argued education was key.

She did value marriage and was married to Godwin and died soon after the birth of Mary. She believed it was a partnership of equals. The tyranny of the make over the female must be resisted, it prevents good citizens

There were limits. She claimed that due to biology women were more likely to opt for marriage and children, but this is no less virtuous. She wanted choice and equality of opportunity.

Question 23

Who is John stuart Mill and what did he believe

Answer 23

Key ideas

• Individuals should be free to do anything except harm others
• It is important to tolerate behaviour or ideas that are different to others.

Son of utilitarian philosopher James mill, he was initially inspired by the movement ad deserved that individuals are the best judges of their interest . However he did not view the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain the exclusive motivation of beings. The betterment of humans is no less an important goal.

He created the Harm Principal, in his book on liberty. He made a distinction between self regarding- only affect the person enacting0 an other regarding- that which extends beyond the enactor. HE claimed that the state had no right tot interfere with the former. However it could with the latter

He did modify his view, seeing some intervention as needed to stop the poor suffering. HE believed in a flat tax and inheritance tax.

Tolerance means people can express minority views, consensus does not mean something is correct. He spent a night in jail trying to advise the poor on contraception and spent 21 years with his love Harriet Taylor and her husband until he died when he married here. He believed in complete gender equality, which during his brief time as an MP he did not achieve

Question 24

Who is John Rawls and what did he believe

Answer 24

Key ideas-

• Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
• A fari society is on win which the difference in outcomes for the richest and poorest is kept to a minimum.

HE was an american academic known for his work on ‘the theory of justice; where he attempted to reconcile freedom with the avoidance of inequality. He rejected utilitarianism as he believed it did not take into account the range of desires and motivations of people. He beloved everything has an equal entitlement to basic rights and liberties, however there has to be a society where there is economic justice.

He thought there would always be some inequality- but we should aim to minis the outcomes of inequality Form this he created an idea of the original position- a state of affairs before human society has been formed. People would have to decide on a basis that was fair for all behind a veil of ignorance- they would not know who theft are so their privilege would not impact it. They would not be certain about what would happen, so they would adopt a low risk strategy to ensure they would not suffer. HE argued people would agree on equal rights and a minimum standard of living. the ‘difference principal’ would allow for freedom, but not at the expense of others. Inequality would exist, but it cannily be tolerated if it does not make the poorest worse off.

He rejected extremes, preferring a property owning democracy, where ownership is distributed and the poorest in society and independent economically.

In his book political liberalism, he modifies his theory, as in a pluraslit society not everyone would agree. HE preferred liberal principals- with equal rights and econ justice being one of just a number of options. Overlapping consensus would occur.

Question 25

Who is betty Friedan and what did she believe

Answer 25

Key ideas

• Women are just as capable as men and oppressive social ideas and laws should be rejected
• Women are held back from racing their potential, by unfair ideas about their employment possibilities.

She was notable for her book the feminine mystique and the national organisation of women- the largest in the world. Tried to bring women into society alongside men and secure anti discrimination laws by government

HE starting point was the belief that conditioning rather than biology lied to women becoming housewives. This path is set early, the family and school even reinforce it. She agued for wider opportunities for women and a change of attitudes in favour of greater equality - women being confined to a domestic role can lead to deep unhappiness.

She was a liberal as she wanted to make reforms in the existing structure of society, rather than through a radical transformation. She accepted some women wanted to be mothers and this is no less valid- women just need to choice.

In many ways she is a continuation of Wollstonecraft . Her philosophy was grounded in the belief of equal worth of individuals. and equal rights. She wanted a level playing field and opportunity.