2.1 Global systems and global governance - 2.1.5.1: Antarctica as a global common Flashcards
What is the size of Antarctica?
14 million square kilometres
How much of the Earth’s ice does Antarctica contain?
90%
How much of the Earth’s freshwater does Antarctica contain?
70%
There is very little available ………… in Antarctica.
water (less than 166mm per year)
What is the average temperature in Antarctica?
-49 degrees Celsius
What is the biodiversity like in Antarctica?
very low - very few species are adapted to the conditions
The Antarctic ecosystem is very ………… .
fragile
What species thrives at the Antarctic Convergence? Why?
microscopic phytoplankton because there is an upwelling of nutrient-rich cold water
How much has the temperature of the west coast of Antarctica increased by in the past five decades?
3 degrees Celsius (one of the fastest temperature rises on Earth)
What affect has warming had on the Antarctic ice sheets?
melting (especially around the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea)
What species of penguin has declined in numbers as a result of ice melting?
Adelie
By how much has the krill population declined since the 1970s? Why?
80% - a consequence of ice melting and the environment changing
By how much have global sea levels increased since the 1990s?
3mm rise per year
What will the rising of sea levels cause?
the edges of the ice sheets will become unstable which will increase the rate of melting
Why does climate change cause ocean acidification around Antarctica?
carbon dioxide in the air reacts with saltwater to form carbonic acid which depletes the amount of calcium carbonate in the water
Why is a lack of calcium carbonate in the sea surrounding Antarctica a problem?
species such as plankton do not have enough calcium carbonate to form their shells
What is the most fished creature in Antarctica?
Antarctic krill
How much krill was fished from the Antarctic in 2013?
200 000 tonnes
What are the impacts of reduced fish and krill populations?
the food chain is affected
What do legal fishing limits aim to do?
keep stocks at a sustainable level
Why is illegal fishing a problem?
it is very difficult to monitor
What was common in the mid-20th century?
whaling
What year were regulations implemented in order to ban all commercial whaling?
1982
Why will the Antarctic whale population take time to recover?
whales are slow breeders
For what reason do countries still kill whales?
for ‘scientific purposes’
There are believed to be a lot of ………… in Antarctica.
minerals
There are large reserves of ………… underneath the Southern Ocean.
oil
So far, there hasn’t been any ………… in Antarctica.
mining
Mining is currently ………… in Antarctica.
banned
Why isn’t Antarctica the ideal place for mining?
it is too far away to transport machinery from any other landmass and the landscape and climate would make mining difficult and expensive
Why might mining not be banned in the future?
increasing demand for minerals and oil as supplies are depleted elsewhere
Tourism increases ………… and ………… to Antarctica.
shipping; air travel
What does shipping and air travel to Antarctica cause?
water and air pollution
What could happen if boats hit icebergs?
fuel spills
Tourists can ………… breeding colonies of birds.
disturb
Trampling damages ………… ………… and ………… the landscape.
fragile vegetation; erodes
What can litter and waste disposal damage?
habitats and can harm wildlife (especially because decomposition rates in cold environments are slow)
What might alter food webs and ecosystems?
non-native species
Antarctica is important for ………… and ………… research.
scientific; environmental
Why does scientific and environmental research require lots of facilities?
places for the researchers to live are required, in addition to roads to transport supplies and places to store fuel
What happened as a result of scientific and environmental research in Antarctica until the 1980s?
a lot of waste created was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped
When was the Antarctic Treaty signed?
1959
How many countries signed the Antarctic Treaty?
53
What are the rules of the Antarctic Treaty?
- Antarctica should be used for peaceful reasons (no army bases or weapons are allowed on Antarctica)
- countries should cooperate on scientific research in Antarctica by sharing plans, researchers and results
- Antarctica should remain within the global commons - individual countries cannot make a claim to it
Under the 1959 treaty, all bases and equipment can be ………… at any time.
inspected
When was the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty signed?
1991
What did the 1991 protocol ban?
mining
What does the 1991 protocol aim to protect?
Antarctic plants and animals
What does the 1991 protocol aim to regulate?
waste disposal
What does the 1991 protocol aim to prevent?
pollution
What is required for any new activities under the 1991 protocol?
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
There is ………… ………… to ensure all countries abide by the rules set out in the 1959 treaty and 1991 protocol.
no system
The countries involved must reach a ………… over all decisions regarding Antarctica.
consensus (this makes tackling problems slow and diffucult)
What is the International Whaling Commission (IWC) responsible for?
regulating whaling and ensuring that the whale population is at a sustainable level
What did the IWC set up in 1994?
a whale sanctuary in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica
Why have campaigners criticised the IWC?
for not properly monitoring the number of whales in the sanctuary
What is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)?
a UN agency and is the main institution that governs the world environment
What is the UNEP responsible for in Antarctica?
reporting activity to the UN
Who runs the UNEP programme in Antarctica?
CCAMLR
What does CCAMLR aim to do?
stop illegal fishing and conserve the Antarctic ecosystem
How is the effectiveness of CCAMLR limited?
by countries protecting their own interests - it took five years for CCAMLR to negotiate the creation of a marine protected area in the Ross Sea, and it hasn’t reduced fishing quotas in this area
What did the IWC introduce in 1982?
a Whaling Moratorium that banned all commercial whaling around the world
How has the 1982 ban of commercial whaling affected the whale population of Antarctica?
increased population
How is the success of the Whaling Moratorium monitored?
by estimating whale populations based on sightings and modelling
Which countries believe there should be a better system to monitor the Antarctic whale population?
USA and Australia
How could the whale monitoring system in Antarctica be improved?
by registering all whaling boats with the IWC and placing independent observers on all whaling boats (Japan and Norway oppose this)
What are the opinions of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), including Greenpeace, regarding the enforcement of the Whaling Moratorium
poorly enforced
How many whales were killed by Japanese whalers in 2018 for ‘scientific research’ despite the ruling?
300
NGOs play an important role in ………… possible threats to Antarctica and ………… its environment.
monitoring; protecting
Why are NGOs well positioned to observe whether countries are sticking to the laws governing Antarctica?
they don’t act on behalf of a particular country
What is a key NGO involved in Antarctica?
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
When was ASOC formed?
1978
Why was ASOC formed?
a group of NGOs were concerned that some countries were planning to make it legal to search for oil, gas and minerals in Antarctica
What did ASOC successfully campaign to do?
make Antarctic Treaty meetings more transparent, including allowing NGOs to attend
ASOC is interested in protecting the Antarctic ………… and does not have any interest in trying to ………… Antarctica for resources or fishing.
environment; exploit
What does ASOC do today?
monitors environmental changes in Antarctica and checks whether countries are sticking to the rules (e.g. monitoring whether countries are following the 1991 Environment Protocol)
What does ASOC also monitor in Antarctica?
effects of climate change
How does ASOC monitor the effects of climate change in Anatarctica?
by checking melting ice and sea levels around Antarctica
What does ASOC campaign for, alongside other NGOs?
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
What has the monitoring of the melting ice in Antarctica triggered?
efforts to combat climate change - more renewable energy sources can be used and individuals can reduce their impact on the environment by driving less
Why might global governance slow down short-term economic growth in some countries?
there may be limits on how many whales and fish can be caught limits the amount that countries can sell
How is limiting short-term economic growth of some countries by limiting whaling and fishing be advantageous?
it secures resources for the future
Global governance allows greater ………… ………… in Antarctica.
scientific exploration
What does collaboration allow researchers to do?
pool resources (e.g. sharing research stations)
Global governance allows for ………… to visit Antarctica safely and securely.
tourists
