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biology as > 2.1 - Biodiversity > Flashcards

2.1 - Biodiversity Flashcards

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1
Q

Classification def?

A

putting items into groups

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2
Q

Phylogenetic def?

A

Reflecting evolutionary relatedness

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3
Q

Phylogenetic method?

A

grouping closely related organisms together

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4
Q

Organisms in the same group?

A

have a more recent common ancestor with each other than with organisms that are not in their group

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5
Q

If closely related?

A

may show physical similarities

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6
Q

Chimpanzee, gorilla, human and banana?

A

the chimpanzee, the human + gorilla - have a more recent common ancestor than any of them does with the banana.
Puts the chimpanzee, human and gorilla into group that does not include the banana
Chimpanzee + human have more recent common ancestor than either has with gorilla
puts human + chimpanzee into group that excludes gorilla

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7
Q

How can these be shown?

A

phylogenetic tree

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8
Q

Phylogenetic tree?

A

diagram that shows descent with living organisms at the tips of the branches and ancestral species in the branches and trunk with branch points that represents common ancestors
lengths of branches - indicate the time between branch points

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9
Q

In a phylogenetic tree?

A

further up the diagram you go, the further forward in time
species at top exist now
those in trunk and branches are no longer alive
branch points - represent common ancestors of organisms in the branches
diagram reminds that current species in 3.8 billion year history of life

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10
Q

Hierarchy def?

A

system of ranking in which small groups = nested components of larger groups

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11
Q

Taxon?

A

any group within a system of classification

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12
Q

Hierarchy of biological classification?

A

Domain>Kingdom>Phylum>class>order>family>genus>species

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13
Q

Example of how the hierarchical classification system is applied?

A

Domain - Eukaryota
Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Chordata
Class - Mammalia
Order - Primates
Family - Hominidae
Genus - Homo
Species - Sapiens

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14
Q

Moving down the hierarchy?

A

from domain to species, organisms in a taxon are more closely related

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15
Q

Moving up the hierarchy?

A

from species to domain, members of a taxon are less closely related

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16
Q

Taxa are discrete?

A

at any level of classification , an organism belongs in one taxon and in no other.

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17
Q

Why do we need a classification system?

A

A phylogenetic classification system allows us to infer evolutionary relationships. If 2 organisms are so similar that we put them in the same taxon, we infer they are closely related

If new animal is discovered with a beak and feathers, we predict some of its other characteristics based on general understanding of birds

when we say bird, it is easier than saying vertebrate egg laying biped with a beak and feathers

when describing the health of an ecosystem or the rate of extinction in the geological record, conservationists often find it more useful to count families than species

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18
Q

What is our system for classification depends on?

A

our current knowledge
any system we use = tentative and may be altered as our knowledge advances

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19
Q

Domain?

A

largest taxon and all living things belong in one of 3 domains
domains - originally defined on the bases of rRNA base sequences
More modern methods of analysis also consider similarities in DNA base sequence

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19
Q

Eubacteria?

A

these are the familiar bacteria such as E.coli and Salmonella
They are prokaryotes

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20
Q

Archea?

A

these are bacteria and often have unusual metabolism
e.g some generate methane
Many are extremophiles
Include a lack of molecular oxygen, very high pressure, very high temp, or very high or low pH

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21
Q

Eukaryota?

A

plantae, animalia,fungi and protoctista

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22
Q

What is the 5 kingdom system?

A

5 kingdom system classifies organisms on the basis of their physical appearance

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23
Q

5 kingdoms?

A

Eubacteria and Archaea - 1 kingdom
Prokaryotae and the other 4 organisms contain eukaryotes organisms

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24
Q

Domain def?

A

the highest taxon in the biological classification, one of the three major groups into which living organisms are classified

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25
Q

Kingdom def?

A

all living organisms are classified into 5 kingdoms depending on their physical features

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26
Q

Phylum def?

A

subdivision of a kingdom, based on a general body plain

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27
Q

Class?

A

sub - group of a phylum
e.g Mammalia form a class within the phylum Chordata
insects = class within the phylum Arthropoda

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27
Q

Phylum?

A

sub group of a kingdom
members of each phylum have a distinct body plan
e.g members of the phylum Annelida = soft bodied and segmented ; members of the Arthropods have a chitinous exoskeleton and jointed limbs.
Chordata - contains vertebrates

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28
Q

Order?

A

sub group of a class - Lepidoptera
Order containing butterflies and moths is in the class insects

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29
Q

Family?

A

group within an order
Flower families = most familiar such as rose family rosaceae

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30
Q

Genus?

A

a group of similar organisms such as the genus Panthera, containing lions and tigers

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31
Q

Species?

A

a group of organisms sharing a large number of physical features and able to interbreed to make fertile offspring

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32
Q

Genus def?

A

a taxon containing organisms with many similarities but enough differences that they are not able to interbreed to produce the offspring

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33
Q

Species def?

A

a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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34
Q

Prokaryota?

A

microscopic
kingdom - contains all the bacteria
Archaea and cyanobacteria

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35
Q

Protoctista ?

A

some protoctista have only 1 cell and these are the main component of plankton
others are colonial
some have many similar cells
these = seaweeds, or algae, such as the sea lettuce

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36
Q

Plantae?

A

mosses, horsetails and ferns reproduce with spores
conifers and flowering plants reproduce with seeds

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37
Q

Fungi?

A

yeasts = single celled
moulds such as penicillium and mushrooms such as Amanita muscaria have hyphae that weave together to form the body of the fungus, a mycelium
In some fungi, cross - cell walls called septa, dub divide the hyphae

38
Q

Homologous structure def?

A

structures in different species with a similar anatomical position and developmental origin derived from a common ancestor

39
Q

Pentadactyl def?

A

having 5 digits

40
Q

Divergent evolution?

A

the development of different structure over long periods of time from the equivalent structures in related organisms

41
Q

The theory of evolution?

A

suggests that widely separated groups of organisms share a common ancestor
Therefore, it would be expected that they share basic features, so their similarities should indicate how closely related they are
more similar 2 organisms are, more recently they = assumed to have diverged

42
Q

Pentadactyl limb of the vertebrate?

A

basic structure = the same in all 4 classes of terrestrial structures, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mamals
However. the limbs of the different vertebrates have adapted and have different functions - grasping, walking, swimming and flying
Examples = human arm, wing of a bar, flipper of a whale, wing of a bird, leg of a horse

43
Q

Divergent evolution?

A

a common ancestral structure has evolved and performs different functions

44
Q

Convergent evolution def?

A

development of similar structures is unrelated organisms over long periods of time related to natural selection of similar features in a common environment

45
Q

Analogous structures def?

A

have corresponding function and similar shape but have a different developmental origin

46
Q

Convergent evolution?

A

where structures evolve similar properties but have different developmental origins
Such structures = analogous

47
Q

DNA sequences?

A

during the course of evolution, species undergo changes in their DNA base sequences, which accumulate until the organisms are so different that they are considered to be different species
more closely related species, show more similarly in their DNA base sequences than those who are more distantly related
DNA analysis has confirmed evolutionary relationships and corrected mistakes made in classification based on physical characteristics

48
Q

DNA hybridisation?

A

involves comparing DNA base sequences of 2 species
to work out how closely related 2 species of primates for example humans
Homo sapiens and chimpanzee
DNA from both = extracted, separated into single strands and cut into fragments
Fragments from the 2 species = mixed and where they have complementary base sequences, they hyribidse together

49
Q

Amino acid sequences?

A

the sequence of amino acids in proteins is determined by the DNA base sequence
Degree of similarity in the amino acid sequence of the same protein in 2 species will reflect how closely related they are

50
Q

Immunology?

A

the proteins of different species can be compared using immunological techniques.
If you mix the antigens of 1 species. such as the blood protein albumin with specific antibodies of another, the antigens and antibodies coagulate
closer the evolutionary relationship, the more coagulation occurs

51
Q

Morphological definition?

A

the 2 organisms look very similar they are likely to be in the same species
there may be differences, such as the presence of a mane on the lions not the female lions

52
Q

Reproductive definition?

A

another way of defining a species states that the 2 organisms are in the same species if they can interbreed to make fertile offspring

53
Q

Taxomonomy def?

A

the identification and naming of organisms

54
Q

Purpose of taxonomy?

A

discover and describe biological diversity
investigate evolutionary relationships between organisms
classify organisms to reflect their evolutionary relationships

55
Q

Binomial system def?

A

the system of giving organisms a unique name with 2 parts
genus and species

56
Q

3 advantages of the binomial system?

A

unambiguous naming
based on latin, can be used all over the world
implies that 2 species sharing part of their name are closely related
panthera leo
panthera tigris

57
Q

How to use the binomial system?

A

each organism has 2 names
its genus and species
genus = first name and capital letter
species comes second and does not have capital letter
first time the scientific name = used in text, it is written in full
Panthera tigris
If used again, may be abbreviated , P tigris
Both names = printed in italics or underlined when hand written

58
Q

Biodiversity def?

A

number of species and the number of individuals in each species in a specified region

59
Q

What does biodiversity refer to?

A

the number of species - species richness
Number of organisms within each species - species evenness
vary enormously, depending on where and when you are looking
biodiversity = not constant

60
Q

Spatial variation?

A

number of species and the number of organisms depend in part on the environment

61
Q

Examples?

A

more plans grow at high light intensity than low light intensity so at a bright environment can support more herbivores and therefore more carnivores than a dull one
more energy flowing through an ecosystem produces more species + more individuals
means that equatorial regions have a much higher biodiversity than polar regions

62
Q

Biodiversity can increase or decrease for 3 main reasons?

A

succession
natural selection
human influence

63
Q

Succession?

A

over time, a community of organisms changes its habitat, making it more suitable for other species
change in composition of a community over time = succession
increases biodiversity but ultimately decreases plant biodiversity

64
Q

Natural selection?

A

can generate and change biodiversity

64
Q

Human influence?

A

Tropical rainforests, farming, roads and industry have destroyed habitats, reducing the numbers of individuals and driven to extinction many species have nowhere else in the world

In oceans, over-fishing has depleted fish stocks and some very productive diverse areas, such as coral reefs and estuaries are severely stressed
Dredging the ocean floor, disrupt habitats, damaging populations of invertebrates, fish and sea mammals

misuse of land such as trampling by cattle, accompanied by the increasing temp related to climate change has increased the area of deserts.
sahara desert = expanded and large area of australia + north america - vulnerable

Rivers = polluted with industrial chemicals

65
Q

Significance of reduced biodiversity?

A

a small number of plants and animals = used to support human civilisation

medicinal drugs = derived from plants + fungi for example aspirin, statins, antibiotics

Living organisms provide important raw materials e.g rubber and cotton

66
Q

As biodiversity decreases?

A

we lose potential new foods and sources of new useful characteristics to breed into crops such as disease resistance
potential for discovering new medicinal drugs and new raw materials = compromised

67
Q

Assessing biodiversity?

A

at production level produces a biodiversity index which can be used to monitor the biodiversity of a habitat over time and to compare biodiversity in different habitats

68
Q

Example of assessing biodiversity?

A

Simpson’s diversity index
which describes the biodiversity of motile organisms such as the invertebrates in a stream
Commonest way of calculating the index gives a numerical value and the higher the value, the higher the biodiversiy

69
Q

Calculation?

A

1 - Sum of n(n-1)
/ N(n-1)
N = the total number of organisms present
n = the number in each species

70
Q

Polymorphism def?

A

this occurrence of more than one phenotype in a population, with the rarer phenotypes at frequencies greater than can be accounted for by mutation alone

71
Q

what does an examination of genes and alleles give?

A

an assessment of biodiversity at the genetic level
approach focuses on all the alleles present in the gene pool of the population and not the individuals

72
Q

Locus?

A

a gene’s position on the chromosome

72
Q

what does a locus show?

A

polymorphism if it has 2 or more alleles, with the rarer alleles at frequencies greater than would occur by mutation alone

72
Q

Low biodiversity for that gene?

A

if 98 % of all the alleles of a particular gene are the same recessive allele

73
Q

If a gene has more alleles?

A

its locus is more polymorphic than if there were fewer alleles

73
Q

In some plants?

A

Gene T controls height - 2 different alleles
Gene S controls whether or not pollen can germinate on the stigma of a flower of the same species
Gene S has a greater biodiversity than gene T as more phenotypes are possible for genes S than T

74
Q

High biodiversity for that gene?

A

If only 50% of the alleles in the gene pool were recessive, 50% would be other alleles

75
Q

DNA fingerprinting?

A

sometimes only 1 base differs
these single base differences are called SNPS
single
nucleotide
polymorphism
also regions of DNA that vary generally about 20-40 base sequences long often repeated many times
unique lengths of non-coding DNA are called hyper-variable regions or short tandem repeats

76
Q

Genetic or DNA fingerprint or profile?

A

terms for a pattern unique for each individual, related to the base sequences of their DNA

77
Q

What does comparing the number and position of the bands in the DNA do?

A

indicates how similar or different their DNA sequences are
More different SNPs and HVR’s a population has, the more differences there are in its DNA fingerprints
More differences indicate a greater biodiversity
In a biodiverse population, DNA fingerprints show a lot of variation

78
Q

Natural selection def?

A

the gradual process in which inherited characteristics become more or less common in a population, in response to the environment determining the breeding success of individuals possessing those characteristics

79
Q

Mutation?

A

differences in DNA

80
Q

Variation?

A

different physical appearance, biochemical function or behaviour

81
Q

Competitive advantage?

A

some are more suited to the environment than others and outcompete rivals for resource’s

82
Q

Survival of the fittest?

A

the more suited to the environment survive better

83
Q

Reproduction?

A

the more suited to the environment have more offspring

84
Q

Pass advantageous alleles to offspring

A

offspring inherit the advantageous alleles, so they are also suited to the environment

85
Q

How does natural selection decrease biodiversity?

A

happens when a selective insecticide kills all the aphids in a habitat or when an asteroid crashes into the earth, throwing dust into the atmosphere, reducing light intensity so much that plants cannot survive
then the herbivores die, so the carnivores die
Natural selection selection decreases the biodiversity and species may become extinct

86
Q

Adaptation?

A

change in a species as a useful characteristic becomes more common
Useful characteristic = adaptive trait

87
Q

Anatomical traits?

A

where the animal is developed to their function
e.g sharks have streamlined bodies, more efficient at catching food or prey

88
Q

Physiological traits?

A

refers to their biological function
e.g mammals are endothermic and must avoid wasting energy trying to maintain body temp in the cold
during hibernation, a hedgehog resets its body thermostat as hibernation requires less energy

89
Q

Behavioural traits?

A

Animals change their behaviour to fit their function
e.g hawthorn, the flowers in spring when pollinating, insects have emerged. If flowered earlier, would not be pollinated

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