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2.1 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is an elecron micrograph

A

photograph of an image seen using an electron microscope

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2
Q

define magnification

A

the number of times larger an object appears compared against the size of the object

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3
Q

what is a photomicrograph

A

photograph of an image seen using an optical microscope

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4
Q

define resolution

A

the clarity of an image, the higher the resolution, the clearer

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5
Q

what are light microscopes often called

A

optical microscopes

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6
Q

what magnification do light microscopes allow

A

up to x1500 or in some types x2000, however the resolution is limited so the image wont be as clear

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7
Q

what do light microscopes use to see

A

visibe light with a wavelength of 400 and 700nm

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8
Q

when will objects appear as one object through a light microscope?

A

when they are closer together than 200nm

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9
Q

what type of organelle is a ribosome

A

non-membrane bound

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10
Q

how do you calculate the total magnification

A

magnifying power of objective lens x magnifying power of the eye piece lens

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11
Q

what are laser scanning microscopes often called?

A

confocal microscopes

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12
Q

how do laser scanning microscopes see?

A

they use laser light to scan an object point by point and assemble by computer the pixel info into an image.

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13
Q

why are laser scanning microscopes good?

A

they have depth selectivity

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14
Q

how do electron microscopes see?

A

they use a beam of fast travelling electrons with a wavelength of about 0.004nm. this means they have a much better resolution that light microscopes.

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15
Q

in electron microscopes how are the electrons fired?

A

the electrons are fired from a cathode and focused by magnets onto a screen or photographic plate

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16
Q

how small is the wavelength of fast travelling electrons?

A

125,000 smaller than the central part of the visible light spectrum

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17
Q

what do electron micrographs look like?

A

2D black and white image

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18
Q

what does TEM stand for?

A

transmission electron microscope

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19
Q

what does SEM stand for?

A

scanning electron microscope

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20
Q

what kind of specimens are used in SEMs?

A

dead ones. its a vacuum. and the metallic salt stains used could be hazardous to the user.

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21
Q

what is an eye piece graticule?

A

a measuring device, placed in the eye piece

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22
Q

stage graticule?

A

a precise measuring device, used to calibrate the value of eyepiece graticle at different magnifications

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23
Q

what is in a generalised animal cell

A

ribosomes
mitochondria
nucleus
nucleolus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
nuclesr envelope
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lysosome
golgi apparatus
plasma membrane

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24
Q

what is in a generalised plant cell

A

mitochondria
chloroplasts
amyloplast
golgi apparatus
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
ribosomes
nucleus
nucleolus
nuclear envelope
rough endoplasmic membrane
plasma membrane
cell wall
vacuole

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25
Q

explain the main function of RER

A

For protein synthesis
Also an intracellular transport system
(Cisternae)

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26
Q

function of SER

A

contains enzymes that catalyse reactions involved with lipids:
synthesis of…
cholesterol
phospholipids
steroid hormones

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27
Q

what does the SER look like

A

-system of membranes with cisternae.
-it is continuous with the nuclear envelope

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28
Q

whats the double membrane around the nucleus called?

A

the nuclear envelope

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29
Q

what is the nucleus envelope like?

A

-it has pores
-it seperates the contents of the nucleus from the rest of the cell

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30
Q

what does the nucleolus contain

A

RNA

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31
Q

what is chromatin?

A

It’s made of DNA wound around histone proteins

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32
Q

what is chromatin like?

A

-spread out and extended.
-coiled and condensed when the cell is about to divide

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33
Q

why is the nuclear envelope porous?

A

to allow larger substances like mRNA to leave the nucleus.
-things like steroid hormones to enter.

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34
Q

what happens at the nucleolus

A

ribsomes are made

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35
Q

what is the structure of the golgi apparatus?

A

a stack of membrane-bound flattened sacs

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36
Q

whats the function of the golgi apparatus?

A

-where proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle
E.G modified by, adding sugar molecules to make glycoproteins,
being folded into their 3D shape

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37
Q

structure of mitochondria?

A

spherical rod shapes or branched.
-2-5 micro metres long.
-have two membranes with a fluid between them.
-the inner membrane is folded into cristae.
-the inner part of a mitochondria is a fluid filled matrix.

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38
Q

what do mitochdria do?

A

Aerobic respiration and ATP production
Self replicate

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39
Q

whats the structure of chloroplasts?

A

-large
-4-10 micro metres long
-double membrane
-the inner membrane is continuous with stacked flattened sacs called thylakoids containing chlorophyll.
-each thylakoid pile is called a granum.
-the fluid filled matrix is called the stroma
-chloroplasts contain loops of DNA and starch grains

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40
Q

function of chloroplasts?

A

-site of photosynthesis
-the first stage occurs in the grana.
-water is also split to supply hydrogen ions
-the second stage where hydrogen reduces CO2 to make carbohydrates happens in the stroma.
-abundant is the palisade layer

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41
Q

whats the structure of a vacuole?

A

surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast.
-it contains fluid

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42
Q

function of vacuoles?

A

only plant cells have a large permanent vacuole.
-mainatains cell stability
-filled with water and solutes
-turgid and flaccid

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43
Q

where are lysosomes formed?

A

at the Golgi apparatus

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44
Q

what do lysosomes contain?

A

powerful hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes

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45
Q

where are lysosomes abundant?

A

phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages

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46
Q

what are neutrophils and macrophages?

A

types of white blood cells

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47
Q

what can neutrophils and macrophages do?

A

ingest and digest invading pathogens such as bacteria

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48
Q

what do lysosomes do?

A

-keep the powerful hydrolytic enzymes seperate from the rest of the cell
-engluf old organelles and foreign matter, digest them, return to the cell for reuse

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49
Q

what are cilia and flagella?

A

protrusions from the cell and surrouned by the plasma membrane

50
Q

what does cilia and flagella contain?

A

microtubules

51
Q

what are cilia and flagella formed from?

A

centrioles

52
Q

where can cilia be found?

A

epithelial cells in airways
-nearly all cells have a cilium that acts as an antenna which contains receptors

53
Q

what is a flagella

A

a long cilia like on a sperm cell

54
Q

what is flagella often called

A

undulipodia

55
Q

which organelles have a double membrane?

A

nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts

56
Q

which organelles don’t have a membrane?

A

ribosomes and centrioles

57
Q

how big are ribosomes?

A

small, spherical, about 20nm in diameter

58
Q

what are ribosomes made from?

A

ribosomal RNA

59
Q

where are ribosomes made?

A

in the nucleolus as 2 seperate subunits.
they go though the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm and then combine
somestay in the cytoplasm
some attach to the RER

60
Q

what are the ribosomes on the RER for?

A

mainly for synthesising proteins that will be exported to the outside of the cell

61
Q

what do ribosomes free in the cytoplasm do?

A

theyre primarily the site of assembly of proteins that will be used inside the cell

62
Q

what do centrioles consist of?

A

two bundles of microtubules at right angles to eachother

63
Q

what do centrioles do?

A

-the centrioles form spindle which is made of threads of tubulin
-chromosomes attach to the middle part of the spindle
-motor proteins walk on tubulin threads and pull the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell
ALSO USED IN CILIA AND FLAGELLA
-centrioles line up and multiply before the cilia form, under the plasma membrane
-microtubules sprout outwards from each centriole forming a cilium or flagella

64
Q

how long are mitochondria?

A

2-5 micrometres
spherical rod shape (hamster poo) or branches

65
Q

how many membranes do mitochondria have?

A

two membranes with a fluid filled space between them

66
Q

what is the inner membrane of mitochondria like?

A

highly folded into cristae

67
Q

whats the inner part of a membrane like?

A

a fluid filled matrix

68
Q

what are mitochondria the site of?

A

ATP production during aerobic respiration

69
Q

why are mitochondria good if the cell needs more energy?

A

because mitochondria are self replicating so more can be made if the cells energy needs to increase

70
Q

where are mitochondria abundant?

A

in cells where a lot of metabolic activity takes place
-liver cells
-at synapses where neurotransmitter is synthesised ad released

71
Q

how big are chloroplasts?

A

large
4-10 micro metres long

72
Q

where can chloroplasts be found?

A

only in plant cells and some protoctists

73
Q

how many membranes does a chloroplast have?

A

2
a double membrane

74
Q

what’s the inner membrane of a chloroplast like?

A

The membrane us continuous with stacks of thylakoids
(flattened membrane sacs)
That contain chlorophyll

75
Q

in a chloroplast, what do you call a stack of thylakoids?

A

plural: grana
singular: granum

76
Q

what do thylakoids contain?

A

chlorophyll

77
Q

what do chloroplasts contain?

A

loops of DNA and starch grains
-inner and outer membrane
-stroma
-grana
-thylakoids
-intergranal lamellae

78
Q

what are chloroplasts the site of?

A

photosynthesis

79
Q

what is the tonoplast?

A

a membrane surrounding a vacuole.

80
Q

what is the membrane that surrounds a vacuole?

A

tonoplast

81
Q

what cells have a large permanent vacuole?

A

only plant cells

82
Q

what is inside a vacuole?

A

a vacuole is filled with water and solutes

83
Q

what does a vacuole do?

A

maintains cell stability

84
Q

how does a vacuole maintain cell stability?

A

when the vacuole is full it presses against the cell wall making it turgid.
in non-woody plants it helps to support the plant

85
Q

what contains water and solutes and maintains cell stability?

A

vacuoles

86
Q

what is 2-5 micrometres long and is spherical rod shaped?

A

mitochondria

87
Q

what is 2-5 micrometres long?

A

mitochondria

88
Q

what contains thylakoids?

A

chloroplasts

89
Q

what contains chlorophyll?

A

thylakoids in chloroplasts

90
Q

which organelle is 4-10 micrometres long?

A

chloroplasts

91
Q

which organelle consists of membrane-bound flattened sacs?

A

golgi apparatus

92
Q

which organelle has a single membrane and is a bag formed at the golgi apparatus?

A

lysosomes

93
Q

which organelle contains hydrolytic enzymes?

A

lysosomes

94
Q

which organelle keeps the powerful hydrolytic enzymes away from the rest of the cell?

A

lysosomes

95
Q

which organelle can engulf old organelles and foreign matter?

A

lysosomes

96
Q

what can lysosomes engulf?

A

old organelles and foreign matter

97
Q

what organelle is about 20nm in diameter?

A

ribosomes?

98
Q

which organelle is made from ribosomal RNA?

A

ribosomes

99
Q

what are ribosomes made of?

A

ribosomal RNA

100
Q

how do prokaryotic cells divide?

A

binary fission

101
Q

how are cilia and flagella arranged in a eukaryotic cell?

A

in a 9+2 arrangement

102
Q

What’s the stroma lamellae in chloroplasts?

A

The membrane that joins grana

103
Q

What is plasmodesma?

A

Holes in cell wall or something that can connect cells together

104
Q

What is mitochondria’s own DNA called?

A

mtDNA

105
Q

What is mtDNA?

A

Mitochondria’s own DNA

106
Q

Which organelles have ribosomes?

A

Mitochondria and chloroplasts and bacteria

107
Q

What is the nucleolus composed off?

A

DNA, RNA and protein

108
Q

what does ethanol do to membranes?

A

ethanol causes membrane disintergration

109
Q

what happens to a membrane when you add solvents?

A

become more permeable

110
Q

in a membrane, what does ethanol form temporary bonds with?

A

the phospholipid heads

111
Q

in a membrane, what effect do the temporary ethanol bonds have?

A

causes phosphilipids to move out of place

112
Q

in a membrane, what is the effect of the phospholipids moving out of place?

A

it causes large gaps in the membrane

113
Q

is cholesterol soluble in ethanol?

A

yes

114
Q

why does the permeability increase if the membrane has been frozen to -15 degrees?

A

when water freezes it expands and causes damage to the membrane so when it defrosts the membrane is damaged

115
Q

what is more permeable? saturated or unsaturated fatty acid membranes?

A

unsaturated
because the kinks make larger gaps in the membrane

116
Q

if the temperature increases, what happens to the permeability of a membrane?

A

permeability increases

117
Q

(membrane) why does permeability increase if the temperature increases?

A

more kinetic energy
more vibrations
more fluidity
gappy phospholipids
rate of movement increases to

118
Q

is membrane fluidity reversible?

A

yes to a certain degree

119
Q

temperature- on a graph, when would you know the proteins in a membrane are denaturing?

A

when the permeability starts inclining a lot

120
Q

on an absorbance and temperature membrane graph, when the line is at the top, why would it stop inclining?

A

because the concentration of pigment is the same on either side of the membrane

121
Q

Hello

A

Hi issie

biology (6 decks)

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