2: Social Perception and Attitudes

Question 1

Non-verbal communication: five basic channels:

Answer 1

facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, posture and touching.

Question 2

Attribution

Answer 2

• efforts to understand why people have acted as they have

Question 3

Correspondent inference

Answer 3

(how we decide what traits a person possesses based on overt actions informed by: freely chosen, noncommon, social desirability)

Question 4

covariation theory

Answer 4

(internal or external attributions based on: consensus, consistency and distinctiveness)

Question 5

emblems

Answer 5

body movements that carry specific meanings linked to a culture.

Question 6

We are more likely to make inferences about peoples when (Correspondent inference)

Answer 6

1. Their actions are freely chosen,
2. There are distinct effects (noncommon, one specific factor, leads to a specific outcome) and
3. The behaviour is low is social desirability or violates social norms.

Question 7

Covariation theory

Answer 7

we make internal (dispositional) or external (situational) attributions based on three factors: consensus, consistency and distinctiveness.
- internal/external, stable/unstable? Controllable/uncontrollable?

Question 8

Action Identification

Answer 8

the interpretation we put on an act in terms of level of abstractions (meaning, high level abstraction is making inferences about a person’s intentions and goals)

Question 9

Correspondence Bias / Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 9

over attribution to internal causes, the inclination to overlook certain external causes of a person’s behaviour, “Thats just who they are”
-most common when distinctiveness and consensus are low

Question 10

Actor-Observer Effect

Answer 10

we tend to perceive our own actions as being linked to external causes, and the actions of other as more reflective of their traits

Question 11

Self-serving bias

Answer 11

“I’m good, you’re lucky.” One’s positive outcomes = internal causes, one’s own negative outcomes – external outcomes.
- general in scope, but powerful in its effect for 2 main reasons:
cognitive (expectation to succeed) and motivational (the need to protect, self-esteem)
Hubris – exaggerated self-confidence

Question 12

Suppose you saw a parent at the supermarket yelling at her child. Apply Kelley’s Covariation Theory and attribute the parent’s behaviour to external and internal causes. Compare these attributions with those you might make using Davis’s theory of correspondent inference.

Answer 12

Covariation
External causes: maybe they just lost a job and are living in poverty, didn’t sleep much last night, or are dealing with intergenerational trauma
Internal: rude person, short temper, authoritative person
Correspondent inference
1. Freely chosen? – the parent could have chosen to control their temper
2. Non-common – is this considered normal behaviour to me? Or is this considered abnormal?
3. Social desirability – this person is acting in a socially undesirable way, so I will pay more attention to it and make more inferences

Question 13

My cousin takes astrology seriously. She believes that the events in her life have been predetermined by the positions of the stars and planets at the time of her birth. She won’t make a major decision without first consulting her horoscope. How would you expect this general, external self-attribution to affect her behaviour?

Question 14

Cognitive Processes underlying persuasion are
Determined by

Answer 14

our capacity to process information, level of motivation and influence by more peripheral cues (distraction)

Question 15

The two Cognitive Processes underlying persuasion:

Answer 15

Systematic – careful consideration, requires effort, absorbs information processing capacity and
Heuristic – peripheral route, mental short cuts,

Question 16

no relevance + strong and convincing arguments =

Answer 16

persuasion is not strongly influenced by the strength of the arguments, tend to process through heuristic mode

Question 17

Classical conditioning

Answer 17

conditioned and unconditioned stimulus (direct route – more generally effective), repeated pairing to create a memory link, indirect – unaware of link being formed, but positive feeling toward the unconditioned stimulus), via subliminal conditioning and mere exposure, classical conditioning can occur without awareness

Question 18

Instrumental conditioning

Answer 18

differential rewards and punishments, families likely continue political and social views due to instrumental conditioning, the desire to fit in

Question 19

Do attitudes predict behaviour?

Answer 19

Attitudes do not necessarily predict behaviour especially in social contexts
-attitudes high in clarity and correctness and more likely to predict behaviour in private and in public.

Question 20

Pluralistic ignorance

Answer 20

erroneously believing that other have different views than themselves (can limit expression in public)

Question 21

what factors contribute to a strong attitude?

Answer 21

extremity, certainty and degree of personal experience

Question 22

How does reasoned thought guide behaviour?

Answer 22

reasoned thought guides behaviour more when there is a plan for how and when, (behaviour intentions, implementation plans)

Question 23

what predicts behaviour?

Answer 23

careful thought to our attitudes, intentions, norms and perceived control over our actions, all predict behaviour

Question 24

Attitude-to-behaviour-process Model

Answer 24

suggests that attitudes can be activated by shaping interpretation of the situation, which in turn influences behaviour.

Question 25

fear appeals appear to

Answer 25

induce argument against the threat

Question 26

messages not designed to be persuasive

Answer 26

= more persuasive due to the effect of forewarning

Question 27

How do we resist persuasion?

Answer 27

Reactance – a negative reaction to others’ attempts to reduce our freedom of choice (related to the experience of threat)
Forewarning – more opportunity to produce counter arguments, resist
forewarning does not prevent persuasion when people are distracted
(there are instances when forewarning can induce agreeance “I’ll look stupid if I don’t agree with this expert.)

Question 28

ego depletion

Answer 28

is the idea that self-control draws on a limited mental resource that can be used up. (makes people consider the strength of an argument less)

Question 29

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 29

an inconsistency between attitudes and behaviours, tend to make us uncomfortable, relate with activity in the left front regions of the brain

Question 30

Strategies for resolving Dissonance

Answer 30

reduce discomfort – DIRECT: alter behaviour, deciding that the inconsistency does not matter (trivialization), INDIRECT: trivialization is not feasible, focus on other methods to feel good about themselves (self affirmations, substance use etc.)

Question 31

Cultural tightness vs looseness

Answer 31

(tight (India and non-western cultures) =
personal attitudes are less strongly linked to behaviour = perceived normative appropriateness is crucial for predicting behaviour)