2. Memory EQs

Question 1

Explain what is meant by coding (2 marks)

Answer 1

1. Coding is the way in which information is stored / put into / processed into memory,
2. e.g. acoustic, visual, semantic.

Question 2

Outline the difference between capacity of STM and the capacity of long-term memory (2 marks)

Answer 2

1. The capacity of LTM is much larger than STM.
2. Unlimited capacity in LTM, 7 + / - 2 items in STM.

Question 3

Outline the main features of the multi-store model of memory (6 marks)

Answer 3

• Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model of memory (MSM) makes a distinction between
  the separate stores of sensory, short-term and long-term memory.
• It is a structural model
• STM and LTM are unitary stores
• Information passes from store to store in a linear way
• Rehearsal is needed to pass information from STM to LTM
• Each store has its own characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and duration
• Explanations for forgetting are different for each store.

Question 4

Describe one way psychologists have investigated duration of STM (4 marks)

Answer 4

• Peterson and Peterson (1959). - - They presented participants with a consonant trigram.
• Rehearsal was
  prevented by asking them to count backwards in threes from a specified number.
• After intervals
  of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds participants were asked to stop counting and to repeat the
  trigram.
• The % of trigrams correctly recalled was recorded for each time interval. 90% trigrams recalled correctly after 3 seconds, 5% after 18 seconds.

Question 5

Jamie wanted to contact his doctor. He looked up the number in his telephone directory. Before
he dialled the number, he had a short conversation with his friend. Jamie was about to phone his
doctor, but he had forgotten the number.
Use your knowledge of the multi-store model to explain why Jamie would not remember
the doctor’s number. (4 marks)

Answer 5

1. According to the MSM rehearsal is needed to keep information in the STM or transfer it to LTM.
2. The conversation with his friend will prevent Jamie from rehearsing the phone number.
   3,4. Reference to the limited capacity and duration of STM would also be relevant.

Question 6

Give one example of a semantic memory and one example of an episodic memory. Briefly
explain one difference between these types of long-term memory. (3 marks)

Answer 6

1. An example of semantic memory – knowing that Paris is the capital of France
2. An example of episodic memory – remembering a
   10th birthday party
3. Semantic memories are general knowledge
   about the world, but episodic memories are memories of our personal experiences.

Question 7

Distinguish between procedural memory and semantic memory. (3 marks)

Answer 7

1. Procedural memory is a motor / action-based memory or a memory of how to do
   something.
2. Semantic memory is memory for facts / information about the world / knowledge memory /
   the meaning of words.
3. semantic is conscious and procedural less conscious

Question 8

Explain one strength and one weakness of the working memory model (4 marks)

Answer 8

1. Evidence from dual task studies to support the model
2. It is easier
   to do two tasks at the same time if they use different processing systems (verbal and visual) than
   if they use the same slave system
3. Little is known about how the central executive works or
   evidence from brain studies
4. Suggesting the central executive is not unitary

Question 9

A brain scan shows that one area of the brain is more active when a person is doing a verbal
task. However, when this person is doing a visual task, a different area of the brain is more active. Explain how this could relate to the working memory model. Refer to different parts of the working memory model in your answer. (4 marks)

Answer 9

1. The visuo-spatial scratchpad (sketchpad) stores / manipulates visual and spatial information
2. and will be active when the person is doing a visual task.
3. The phonological loop, comprising the phonological store (inner ear) and articulatory control system (inner voice)
4. will be active during a verbal task.

Question 10

Bryan has been driving for five years. Whilst driving, Bryan can hold conversations or listen to
music with little difficulty.
Bob has had four driving lessons. Driving requires so much of Bob’s concentration that, during lessons, he often misses what his driving instructor is telling him.
With reference to features of the working memory model, explain the different experiences of
Bryan and Bob. (4 marks)

Answer 10

1. Because driving
   is an ‘automated’ task for Bryan, it makes fewer attentional demands on his central
   executive so he is free to perform other tasks (such as talking or listening to music);
2. this is not the case for Bob who requires all of his attentional capacity for driving.
3. Bob’s inability to dual-task and to divide resources effectively
   between components of working memory.
4. Bryan is able to divide resources between his visuo-spatial sketch pad (driving) and
   phonological loop (talking and listening to music) and thus to
   dual-task.

Question 11

In the context of explanations of forgetting, what is meant by interference? (2 marks)

Answer 11

1. the theory suggests that forgetting is a result of disruption / confusion of
   one memory by other information
2. more likely to occur when memories are similar

Question 12

Outline how a cognitive interview can be used to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (4 marks)

Answer 12

1. Context reinstatement – trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including
   details of the environment, such as the weather conditions, and the individual’s emotional
   state including their feelings at the time of the incident.
2. Recall from a changed perspective – trying to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view e.g. describing what another witness present at the scene would have seen.
3. Recall in reverse order – the witness is asked to describe the scene in a different
   chronological order e.g. from the end to the beginning.
4. Report everything – the interviewer encourages the witness to report all details about the event, even though these details may seem unimportant.
5. The main additional features of the enhanced cognitive interview are:
   Encourage the witness to relax and speak slowly.
   Offer comments to help clarify witness statements.
   Adapt questions to suit the understanding of individual witnesses.

Question 13

Explain why it might be better to carry out research into eyewitness testimony in the real world, rather than in a laboratory. (3 marks)

Answer 13

1. real life settings research has high validity
2. because the findings can be generalised to other similar situations.
3. It is therefore more likely to
   be relevant eg to eyewitness testimony in court cases.

Question 14

Briefly outline two criticisms of studies into short-term memory. (2 marks)

Answer 14

1. lack of ecological validity: studies carried out in an artificial laboratory setting or with
   artificial tasks, do not reflect real life memory
2. lack of mundane realism: use of artificial material (eg recall of trigrams, lists of
   unconnected words etc)

Question 15

Describe how post-event discussion can affect eyewitness testimony. (4 marks)

Answer 15

1. occurs when there is more than one witness to an event, witnesses discuss what they have seen (with co-witnesses or other people)
2. memory conformity, memory contamination
3. information is added to a memory after the event has occurred
4. the accuracy of the witness’s recall may be reduced
5. gabbert study

Question 16

Kaleb is learning about models of memory. Last week the teacher taught the class box
about the multi-store model. This week she is teaching the working memory model.
Kaleb is now finding it difficult to recall any of the information about the multi-store model of memory.
Using your knowledge of interference as an explanation for forgetting, explain Kaleb’s
difficulty. (3 marks)

Answer 16

1. retroactive interference is occurring
2. the newer learning of the working memory model (WMM) is affecting recall of the older information about the multi-store model (MSM)
3. interference is more likely to occur because both topics were similar/models of memory

Question 17

Rory is box talking with his grandparent and playing a game on his phone at the same time. The game involves matching blocks of the same colour to complete vertical and horizontal lines. It is only when his grandparent asks him to describe his route to school that Rory puts down his game so he can concentrate fully on his answer. Explain why (4 marks)

Answer 17

1. in the early part of the conversation, the central executive can divide attention between the conversation and the game on his phone
2. this is because the two tasks use different sub-systems: phonological store/articulatory loop for the conversation and VSSP for the game
3. when he is asked to recount his route to school (a visuo-spatial task), this places too many demands on the VSSP
4. this means Rory must abandon his game to free up more attentional resources because of the limited
   capacity of the stores.

Question 18

Natasha had studied a lot for her A-level Drama performance, mostly practising lines from
a play alone in her room. However, once on stage in front of her teacher and the
examiners, Natasha struggled to remember her lines. Instead, she kept quoting lines from
a different play she had once learnt for GCSE.

Explain why (4 marks)

Answer 18

retrieval failure:
1. Natasha is not in the same context as when she learnt the material for her drama
exam – on stage vs in her room; 2. Natasha is unlikely to be in the same physical, emotional state as when she learnt the material – in her room alone vs in front of the teacher and examiner

interference:
3. Natasha has mixed up/confused words from another exam which has caused her to forget;
4. interference is likely in this case because the A-level and GCSE performances/plays may be similar.

Question 19

Sherry can remember her tenth birthday party when she was on holiday in France.
During this holiday her father taught her how to swim. Although it took time for her to
learn, she barely has to think about how to swim now. Sherry can also remember the
French words for the food she ate while they were in France, even though she did not
speak any French before the holiday.
With reference to Sherry’s experiences, explain three different types of long-term
memory. (6 marks)

Answer 19

• Sherry remembering her tenth birthday party/when she was on holiday in France are examples
  of episodic memory because she recalls the events that took place at a specific point in time
• Sherry remembering how to swim is an example of procedural memory because she is remembering an automatic action/muscle-based memory
• Sherry recalling the French words (for the food she ate) is an example of semantic memory
  because it involves remembering factual information.