1945-1975 Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon; New Frontier; the Great Society; Nixon and Republican revival Flashcards
To what extent was Kennedy’s New Frontier a success?
ew presidents in the twentieth century ruled for a shorter time than John
F. Kennedy (JFK), yet few are so well known or have such a high reputation.
Kennedy’s personal life and period as president continue to fascinate and divide historians. To some he was a breath of fresh air, who greatly changed US society and politics. Others believe he was all image and his achievements have been greatly exaggerated. Kennedy is one of the great what ifs’ in history. People asked what might have been. What would he have achieved had he not been assassinated in 1963?
What happened at the 1960 election?
The 1960 election was between Kennedy and the Republican candidate, Richard Nixon, who had served as vice-president under Eisenhower. The election, which was the closest since 1888, gave JFK a majority of just 118,574 votes. Kennedy’s victory was due to several factors:
Kennedy was Catholic and, although this probably lost him some Protestant votes in the South, he retained and even won back some Catholic support.
He was the son of one of the richest men in the USA - Joseph Kennedy.
Kennedy’s image also helped. He appeared youthful - at 43 he was four years younger than Nixon and had good looks and a glamorous wife.
There was a desire for change after the apparent complacency of the Eisenhower administration (see pages 233-4). JFK promised a New Frontier’, although he was vague about what that actually meant.
Communism seemed a greater threat than ever, especially when the USSR launched the first space satellite, Sputnik, in 1957. Kennedy promised that he would beat Communism.
Kennedy also took advantage of the popularity of Martin Luther King. In October 1960, King was arrested for trying to desegregate a restaurant in Atlanta. JFK phoned King’s wife, stating his support and his brother, Robert Kennedy, used his influence to obtain King’s release. This was well publicised and ensured African-American support.
Television also played an important role - 70 million viewers watched the four televised debates and were more impressed with JFK than with Nixon. Paradoxically, those who listened to the debates on the radio believed Nixon had won.
What was the New frontier?
At first the New Frontier was simply a slogan JFK used to try to inspire and unite young Americans behind him. However, it soon became a programme of reform and change in which Kennedy hoped to make the USA a fairer society by giving equal rights to all African Americans, and by helping them to better themselves. He called it the New Frontier’ to excite voters. Above all else, he wanted to make the USA a fairer and better place and he asked Americans to join him as New Frontiersmen’.
Kennedy also made major changes to central government to ensure that the New Frontier’ was carried out. For example, he gathered a team of the brightest young experts from American universities, most of whom had never worked for the government before. These were known as the Brains Trust. Kennedy hoped that because they were young and fresh, they would come up with new ideas for tackling the problems of the USA.
How did JFK impact civil rights?
JFK has a mixed record on civil rights. Before 1963, he was somewhat hesitant, largely because he did not wish to alienate conservative Southerners whose votes he needed to pass other measures. He appointed five federal judges, including Thurgood Marshall. Marshall was a leading civil rights activist. JFK also threatened legal action against the state of Louisiana for refusing to fund schools that were not segregated.
In October 1962, he sent 23,000 government troops to ensure that one black student, James Meredith, could study at the University of Mississippi. He introduced a Civil Rights Bill to Congress in February 1963. This aimed to give African Americans equality in housing and education, but was defeated in Congress.
How did the New frontier impact the economy?
The New Frontier included economic changes. Kennedy introduced a general tax cut as more spending would mean more goods sold. There were also public works that cost $900,000,000. The Federal Government would begin a series of projects, such as new roads and public buildings. Grants were also given to high-tech companies to invest in high-tech equipment to train workers. JFK increased spending on defence and space technology, all of which secured or created jobs, and also promised that the USA would put a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. He also limited prices and wages to ensure inflation did not spiral out of control.
However, there was still unemployment in traditional industries such as coal, iron and steel, with unemployment twice as high among African Americans.
Moreover, the boom was heavily dependent on government spending.
What social reform did JFK make?
JFK was also active in social reform:
He increased the minimum wage from $1.00 to $1.25 an hour.
The Manpower and Training Act was passed, providing retraining for the long-term unemployed.
The Area Redevelopment Act allowed the Federal Government to give loans and grants to states with long-term unemployment.
The Housing Act provided cheap loans for the redevelopment of inner cities.
The Social Security Act gave greater financial help to the elderly and unemployed.
Social security benefits were extended to each child whose father was unemployed.
Again, however, there were limitations. Kennedy planned to start Medicare, which was a cheap system of state health insurance, but this was thrown out by Congress. Slum clearance created housing shortages in inner-city areas. Moreover, the minimum wage only helped those who already had a job and the Poorest people could not afford to pay back the housing loans.
What opposition was there to the New frontier?
Kennedy seemed to be in a powerful position as president as his party had a majority in both houses of Congress. However, little was achieved during his 1,000 days in office. This was partly due to his own failings as a politician as well as powerful opposition to the New Frontier. He seemed preoccupied with foreign policy and lacked a clear and coherent programme, with his piecemeal proposals being blocked by conservatives.
The greatest opposition came from Southern Congressmen, even Democrats, members of his own party, who disliked his commitment to civil rights. They felt that equal rights for African Americans would cost them the votes of whites in the South. Some opposed the further extension of the power of federal government and greater central government spending. Many still believed in the values of ‘rugged individualism’.
To what extent have Johnson’s domestic achievements been underestimated?
Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) was president from 1963 to 1968. His achievements have often been underestimated and overlooked due to the reputation of Kennedy and the US involvement in the war in Vietnam.
How did the Great Society impact Civil Rights?
LBJ achieved far more in civil rights than his predecessor, JFK. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination in public places, in federally assisted programmes and in employment. In the following year, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 appointed agents to ensure that voting procedures were carried out properly. In 1967, the Supreme Court declared all laws banning mixed race marriages were to be removed.
What economic reform did the Great Society bring?
The Great Society also tackled economic reform. Johnson cut taxes to give consumers more money to spend and, in turn, to help businesses grow and to create more jobs. The Appalachian Recovery Programme provided federal funds for the development of the Appalachians, a mountainous area in the Eastern states. Moreover, the Oftice of Economic Opportunity set up schemes to help poor people in inner cities. It funded new education and community projects and provided loans for local schemes. These schemes were the basis of Johnson’s Programme for Poverty.
Manufacturers and shops had to label goods fairly and clearly. Consumers had the right to return faulty goods and exchange them. The Johnson administration spent $1.5 billion on the Head Start Programme, so that teachers could provide additional education for very young, poor children.
How did the Great Society impact Social reform?
Social reform was another significant area:
The Medical Care Act provided Medicare (for the old) and Medicaid (for the poor). This was an attempt to try to ensure that all Americans had equal access to health care.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided the first major federal support for state education ever. Federal money was provided to try to ensure that standards of education in all states were equal.
The Model Cities Act continued Kennedy’s policy of urban renewal. It was in the centres of the big cities that living conditions were at their worst and where crime was highest. The Act provided federal funds for slum clearance and the provision of better services.
The minimum wage was increased from $1.25 to $1.40 an hour.
What opposition was there to the Geat Society?
Just like Kennedy, with his policies, Johnson faced powerful opposition to his Great Society measures. This opposition, however, was distorted due to attitudes to US involvement in the war in Vietnam. Republicans accused him of wasting money on welfare programmes and undermining rugged individualism’. He was accused of overspending on welfare programmes with rapid increases in health spending in particular.
The greatest problem for Johnson was the escalation of the US involvement in the war in Vietnam. This was not only costly, meaning spending was diverted from the Great Society to paying for the war, but it also led to increasing criticism of Johnson himself (see page 266). His great election victory of 1964 seemed in the distant past, and many Americans celebrated his decision not to run for re-election as president in 1968.
The outbreak of violence in US cities in the late 1960s (see page 264) has often been regarded as evidence that the Great Society was a failure. The programme had aroused expectations that it was then unable to deliver. However, for all the criticisms made of the Great Society, millions benefited from its education and health care programmes. Johnson had done much for the poorer sections of American society, with 25 million given access to decent health care for the first time. The number of African Americans living below the poverty line fell by over 50 per cent. Above all, like Roosevelt in the 1930s, he had greatly extended the role of federal government in intervening to make a difference, especially in the reduction of poverty.
To what extent was Nixon’s presidency a failure in domestic affairs because of the Watergate scandal?
Nixon’s presidency is overshadowed by the Watergate scandal. However, he did have other social and economic achievements as well as successes in foreign policy. In 1968, Nixon promised to ‘bring Americans together again. He faced major problems including inflation caused by over-spending on the conflict in Vietnam as well as the Great Society. There was a growing trade gap and unemployment. He was the first president since 1849 to face a Congress in which both chambers were controlled by the opposition. In addition, US society seemed very divided, with many young Americans questioning traditional values and institutions as well as the USA’s involvement in the war in Vietnam.
What happened at the 1968 election?
The 1968 election was tought between Nixon and the Democrat candidate, Herbert Humphrey, who had served as vice-president under Johnson. Nixon defeated Humphrey by 500,000 votes, winning 302 of the electoral college votes to Humphrey’s 191.
Nixon appealed to ‘Middle America’ by championing those people worried by the Great Society, as well as the black inner-city riots. In addition, he promised ‘peace with honour’ in Vietnam.
Humphrey, on the other hand, campaigned to continue the war in Vietnam as well as the Great Society. Moreover, the Democrat Convention in Chicago highlighted the divisions in the party with clashes between the police and left-wing protestors outside the convention hall.
What were Nixons Domestic achievments?
Nixon’s achievements were limited partly because he was far more interested in foreign policy and the Democrats controlled Congress, which would make it very difficult to pass domestic legislation. In addition, he was conservative by nature and wanted to win the support of Middle America: those who were opposed to feminism, the student movement and the radical changes brought in by the Great Society.
Nixon showed little interest in civil rights, although there was some progress. By 1971, there were thirteen black congressmen and 81 black mayors. He introduced the Family Assistance Plan (FAP), which attempted to replace the range of different benefits brought in by the Great Society with a direct grant of $1,600 to poorer families. However, this was rejected by Congress.
Nevertheless, there was increased spending on the social programmes introduced by the Great Society.
