1911: Imperial Upheavals Flashcards
Why were they called ‘boxers’?
Because they practiced martial arts, known at the time as Chinese boxing.
When was the Boxer Rebellion?
1899-1901
What was the goal of the Boxer Rebellion?
Restore moral order and community solidarity that was threatened by foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians in particular.
What did the Boxers blame the floods and droughts at the end of the 19th century on?
Foreign and Christian influence.
What were the Boxers fighting against?
Anti-foreign, anti-colonial, anti-Christian.
Who were the Boxers?
Loosely affiliated groups of angry young peasants.
What was the banner of the Boxers?
“Support the Qing, destroy the foreign.”
What did the Boxers think Christians did?
Incest, poison wells, created armies out of paper, mad people go mad, refused to pray to village Gods to make it rain.
What was it about Christians that angered the Boxers the most?
Refused to pray to village Gods to make it rain, blaming the droughts on this as God’s anger.
Who ruled China at the turn of the twentieth century?
Empress Dowager Cixi
When did Empress Dowager Cixi declare war on all foreign powers?
June 21 1900
What did Empress Dowager Cixi hope to do by declaring war on all foreign powers?
Restore Chinese power by capitalising on the growing anti-Western sentiment.
Who made up the foreign powers that Cixi and the Boxers were fighting against?
Britain, Germany, Russia, France, Italy, US, Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Japan.
What was the name of the forces of the foreigners Cixi and the Boxers were opposed to?
Eight-Power Expedition
Who provided the most troops for the invading forces in China?
Japan
When did the Eight-Power Expedition invade China?
1900
What was the Yellow Peril?
The idea that the people of East and Southeast Asia represented a threat to the Western world.
What did the Boxers become a symbol of for later Chinese?
The potentials of popular resisitance and righteousness.
Why did the Western powers not want the Qing dynasty to fall?
The power vaccum might cause conflict between the Western powers and Japan.
What was the informal colonization of China?
The expanding ‘spheres of influence’ by the Eight-Power Expedition forces after the Bpxer rebellion that wanted a Chinese government to remain in place.
Why were the Qing seen as foreign?
They were part of the Manchu race.
What did a Chinese delegation do in 1906?
Travel to Japan, Europe, and the United States to study their constitutions.
What did Cixi begin to implement in the aftermath of the Boxer uprising?
A series of New Policy reforms.
What did the New Policy reforms of Cixi aim to do?
Streamline and modernise the government; a better equipped and disciplined army; a new state school system.
What reform did Cixi enact in local government?
Created provincial assemblies to allow local self-government, elected in 1909.
What was the effect of the New Policy reforms by Cixi?
They undermined the Qing’s rule.
Why did the Qing reforms undermine their rule?
- required tax increases to implement which were resented
- educational reforms departed from traditional moral concerns
- temples were turned into schools reserved for children of the rich
What did the new provincial assemblies offer the opportunity for?
The chance to put pressure on the Qing on a range of issues including taxes and constitutional reform.
What was the most far-reaching reform promised by the Qing?
The creation of a constituion, turning the country into a constitutional monarchy
Who did the Qing send abroad?
Students, on legal and military courses.
What happened amongst the Chinese students living abroad in the first decade of the 1900s?
Constitutionalist and revolutionary ideas took hold.
What were the two competing sides on how to govern China after the Boxer rebellion?
Constitutionalists, who wanted a constitutional monarchy; and the revolutionaries, who wanted to overthrow the Qing.
What did the revolutionaires argue to support their claims against the Qing?
That they were Manchus, and alien race, and their rule over China was illegitimate.
What was the National Alliance?
A group made up of small and disparate revolutionary groups of Chinese.
Where was the National Alliance formed and by whom?
Tokyo, Japan, by Sun Yat-sen
What principles united the members of the National Alliance?
Anti-Manchurianism, republicanism, and vague socialism.
What did the Chinese group in Paris advocate?
They were anarchists, calling for the abolition of the states entirely.
Who was the main spokesman of the constitutionalist reformers?
Liang Qichao
Was Liang Qichao a supporter of the Qing?
No, but he feared revolution more than he distrusted the Qing.
What did Qichao point to as an alternative of revolution?
The constitutional monarchism of Britain and Japan as a way to make steady progress in reform.
The revolutionaries were anti-Manchu, but what were the constitutionalists?
They argued that the Han and the Manchu had a common enemy: the Whites. They should therefore set aside their differences.
When was the National Alliance formed?
1905
What had become the norm in China by the early 1900s?
Foreign investment in railroads.
What did the Qing do in order to build railroads?
Borrow money from foreigners and expropriate land to build on.
Why did students and merchants start striking and protesting in 1911?
In opposition to attempts to nationalise the railways.
When did the Wuchang Uprising break out?
October 1911
What had student radicals been doing in Wuchang?
Recruiting New Army soldiers to the revolutionary cause.
Of the 18000 Qing soldiers in Wuchang, how many were revolutionaries?
A third
What had central and southern China done by November 1911?
Seceeded from the Qing empire.
When was the Qing overthrown and the Republic of China declared?
1 January 1912
Who became president of the new Republic of China?
Yuan Shikai
What did Yuan continue to do as president?
He continued the reforms of the Qing, modernising the army, building infrastructure and schools.
How did Yuan Shikai continue implementing reforms?
Taking out foreign loans.
What did foreign powers give Yuan when he became president?
A loan of £25 million
Why did foreign powers support Yuan as president and recognise his legitimacy?
They saw him as the man who could keep China together and protect their investments.
What did the Wuchang Uprising lead to?
The fall of the Qing dynasty.
Under Yuan, what did schools try to instill in children?
‘civilised’ behaviour
What sort of ‘civilised behaviour’ practices did Chinese people do under Yuan?
Shaking hands and the wearing of formal Western clothing on certain occasions.
What benefited the Chinese economy?
World War 1
Why did WW1 benefit the Chinese economy under Yuan?
Imports from Europe reduced which benefited local manufacturers, and exports skyrocketed.
What did the Chinese send to Europe between 1916-18?
150,000 contract workers
Why were workers sent to Europe during WW1 from China?
To keep the Allies factories, construction, and transport moving.
What did the Wuchang Revolution spark?
The 1911 Revolution
What brought the Qing dynasty to an end?
1911 Revolution
When did the Qing rule?
1644-1911
When was the First Sino-Japanese War?
1894-95
Who won the first Sino-Japanese War?
Japan
What happened as a result of China’s loss in the Sino-Japanese War?
Western Powers began claiming spheres of influence within China, seeing the Empire as corrupt and ineffective
Who was Emperor of China at the end of the 19th century?
Emperor Guangxu
Who implemented the reforms of 1898?
Guangxu Emperor
What was the Chinese response to Western Powers claiming spheres of influence after their loss in the Sino-Japanese War?
Announcing a series of modernising reforms in 1898
What was the response to Guangxu’s reforms?
Conservatives and reactionary Manchu princes opposed them
What happened to the Guangxu emperor as a result of his modernising reforms?
His aunt, Empress Dowager Cixi took control
What ethnicity was the majority of China and what ethnicity were the Qing?
Han was the majority; the Qing were Manchu
Who did the Qing, led by Cixi, support in the Boxer Uprising?
The Boxers
Why did the Qing take the side they did in the Boxer Uprising?
Because of the Boxer’s anti-foreign objectives.
What were the reform policies known as?
New Policies
What was Japan’s victory in the Sino-Japanese War interpreted as?
A victory of constitutionalism over autocracy
What did the constituional victory of Japan lead to in China?
The creation of provincial assemblies and a National Assembly in Beijing
What is the debate around the constitutional reform by the Qing?
Whether they were genuinely meant to transform China into a constitutional monarchy if they were just a ruse by the Qing as they tried to cling to power.
Who were the 3 groups competing for influence in the last decade of the 1800s?
The Qing, constitutional reformers, and the revolutionaries
When did Empress Dowager Cixi die?
1908
Who did Cixi appoint as Emperor as she lay on her death-bed?
Puyi, who was a child
Who was to rule as Prince Regent until Puyi was capable?
Puyi’s father, Zaifeng
What 3 things did Zaifeng do that angered the population and sparked the Wuchang Uprising?
- appointed a ‘Princes’ Cabinet’ made up of 9 Manchu and only 4 Han
- nationalised some key railways, angering local gentry with investments in them
- took out foreign loans to build more railways
When was the Second Sino-Japanese War?
1904-5
Who won the Second Sino-Japanese War?
Japan, another example of the virtues of constitutionalism
What happened in the wake of the loss of the Second Sino-Japanese War?
The Qing court sent ministers abroad to investigate political systems
Who was elected in the elections to the procinical assemblies in 1909?
Many supporters of the creation of a constitutional monarchy
What is generally regarded as the fuse that set off the Wuchang Uprising?
The nationalisation of the railways and the taking out of foreign loans to build them by the Qing
As well as threatening the investments of local gentry, what else did the nationalisation of the railways do?
Caused concern amongst patriots of the foreign control of the transport system in China
Why did the Manchu court support the New Policies?
To rescue China from the threat of subjugation or partition by Western and Japanese imperialism
What delayed the construction of railroads in China more, cultural opposition or lack of knowledge?
Lack of knowledge about engineering and technology.
What helped prevent knowledge of engineering from entering China?
The imperial examinations that remained unchanged until the New Policies
Because of the lack of local knowledge about railraods, where did the labour and knowledge come from?
Abroad through foreign ventures and foreign engineers
How many imperial powers were building railroads in China?
8 - Germany, Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Austria-Hungary
What happened when 27 foreign firms petitioned the govenor of Jiangsu for the right to build a train line connecting major trading ports in the Yangzi River region?
They were rejected, with the governor refusing to even forward the petition to the emperor
When did foreign firms petition the govenor of Jiangsu to build railroads?
1863
When was the next attempt to build railroads after Jiangsu?
1875
What did the British trading firm Jardine Matheson do in 1875?
Build a ten-mile railway track without clearing it with the local authorities first.
What did the Chinese government do in 1877 with the British railroad built without permission?
Purchase and destroy it
What did Chinese officials begin to do towards the end on the 19th century?
Argued in favour of railroads to the throne, signalling a shift in attitude
What finally triggered the development of railroads?
China’s loss in the first Sino-Japanese War.
Why was they loss of the first Sino-Japanese War a turning point in the development of railroads?
It led to eforts to promote indigenous industrialization and weakened the Chinese government’s hand in relation to foreign companies since they had just lost the war
Why were railroads suddenly a priority for the Chinese government after the first SJW?
It was seen as a way of competing with Japan and other nations on equal commercial terms
What could the Chinese government not provide in order to develop railroads?
Money, relying on foreign investments
Which railroad had to be financed and overseen by foreigners?
The Jin-Pu Line
Who constructed the Jin-Pu line?
A British-German syndicate with permission from the Chinese government
When was the Jin-Pu line started and completed?
1899-1912
What was the first railroad to be built be foreigners with the Qing’s consent?
The Jin-Pu Line
What were British surveyors for the Jin-Pu line told to do when dealing with local communities?
“avoid interference…which may be considered sacred”
Did British surveyors for the Jin-Pu line work with or against local authorities?
With them, seeing their cooperation vital for assisting their work and protecting any markers left behind after the survey
What were the two general appraoches of China to the West?
Imperialism as bad; progress and modernity as a positive force
Was there opposition to railroad development from Chinese locals?
Yes
Why was there opposition to railroads from locals?
- fear of the unknown
- religious or economic concerns
How should the attacks of railroads by Boxers in the Uprising be regarded?
As an attack on imperialism, not as an objection to railroad technology
What have Chinese historians suggested about land acquisitions by colonial railroad companies?
That it was exploitative
What does Elisabeth Koll suggest in constrast to the arguments of Chinese historians?
That land purchases were not exploitative and that foreign railroad companies paid over the odds for land and that locals were not taken advantage of
What were railroad companies careful to do?
Deal with the delicate matter of moving gravesites and paying generously for their land
What did the generous remuneration for disruption to gravesites result in?
Removing any opposition to land acquisition and construction plans
What was the development of railways used as by Western powers?
An avenue for financial and political influence
When was the first Sino-Japanese War?
1894-95
Who won the first Sino-Japanese War?
Japan, defesting China in just a year
What impact did the result of the first Sino-Japanese War have?
It established Japan as the major power in East Asia, a position formerly occupied by China and the Qing Empire
What treaty ended the first Sino-Japanese War?
Treaty of Shimonoseki
What was Japan awarded in the Treaty of Shimonoseki?
The Liaodong Peninsula, formerly possessed by China
What was the Triple Intervention?
The internention of Russia, France, and Germany to rpevent Japan taking control of the Liaodong Peninsula
What does Xu Guoqi see as the impact of the Triple Intervention?
It infuriated Japan, especially since Liadong was now rightfully theirs, and led to Japan seeking to find a way to take action against Germany
What did the outbreak of war in 1914 represent to Japan in the view of Xu Guoqi?
A way of retaliating against Germany for the part they played in the Triple Intervention
How did the European empires and the United States view East Asia after China’s defeat in 1895?
One of the last arenas for imperial expansion
What happened in China in the years after the Shimonoseki Treaty?
Western commercial expansion intensified
Quote by American writer Brooks Adams, 1895?
“Eastern Asia is the prize for which all the energetic nations are grasping”
Quote by Okuma Shigenobu, prime minister of Japan, about WWI?
He said that Japan must enter the war to “establish its rights and interests in Asia”
What was Japan’s primary interest in WWI?
Expanding into China
When asked to help fight WWI by sending to troops to Europe, what was Japan’s response?
They refused because they were interested in East Asia, not in Europe
What was Japan determined to do in WWI?
Have a war with Germany
What had happened in Japan in 1912 that caused Japan to loose its sense of purpose?
The Meiji emperor died
With regards to the death of the emperor, what would WWI allow Japan to do?
Return a sense of national purpose and definition as a nation
What were the 3 goals Japan sought by joining WWI?
1 - revenge against Germany
2 - expanding into China
3 - rejuvinating its domestic politics
What was the British feeling towards Japan entering WWI?
They were suspicious of their insistence to join but could not stop them
Knowing Japan would enter WWI regardless, what did Britain decide to do?
Cooperate with them
Quote about Japanese attitude to joining WWI?
“Feeling in Japan, onflamed by memory of German intervention in 1895, cannot be restrained”
What did Britain want to limit Japanese intervention in WWI to?
Protect their merchant vessels from German cruisers
Why was britian reluctant to let Japan play a major role in WWI?
To prevent them from gaining trade and influence in China at Britian’s expense
Where can the link between 1895 and 1914 be seen between Japan and Germany’s correspondence?
Germany had ‘advised’ Japan during the Triple Intervention, and in 1914 japan ‘advised’ Germany to withdraw its ships from East Asia
What location did Japan focus on seizing from German control in 1914?
Qingdao
How long did Germany expect their forces at Qingdao to withstand a Japanese seige, and how long did they actually?
Expected to last 6 months; anly lasted 6 weeks thanks to Japanese information and efficiency
After their impressive victory in Qingdao, what did Japan start receiving from the Europe?
Many requests for assistance in the war
What was Japan’s response to the influx of requests for aid?
They largely ignored requests for deeper involvement in the war, but they did provide guns, ammunitions, and aid. They were simply concerned with expanding their power closer to home
What did japan secure over the course of the Great War?
Its rise as a world power at China’s expense, replacing Britain as the dominant foreign power there
How did the Qing and Ming dynastys organise land rights?
“the owner owns the land from the sky down to the lowest point reachable below the surface” - so owning the surface of the land meant owning whatever lay beneath it too
How did land rights differ between China and Europe?
In Europe there was a separation between owning the surface of the land and owning what lay beneath it, but that was not the case in China
Why did the different land rights in China represent a problem for the Qing state?
Because there was no separation between owning what lay on the surface and what lay beneath it, the Qing did not have any way of regulating mining - determining who had the right to mine and where
When did the first set of mining regulations come into effect in China?
March 1902
What did the new mining regulations on 1902 seek to do in Xu Giogi’s words?
“to foil foreign intervention in mining affairs in the provinces” by extneding state control over mining rights
What did the presence of European powers seeking to mine in China result in?
The Qing reforming and expanding their control over the provinces in order to govern mining - in the same way the Qing could give permits to foreign powers to build railways, they were now also able to give them permits to mine
What did the revised mining regulations of 1907 state?
That the Chinese government had first rights to all valuable mineral deposits and the sole authority to grant licenses to mine
When was the Rights Protection Movement?
June 1911 - December 1911
What were the activists of the Rights Protection Movement seeking to achieve?
Preventing foreign involvement in railway and mining activities in China by pushing for tighter regulations and buying back concessions that had already been giving to foreign powers
What event spurred on rising Chinese nationalism in the early 1900s?
Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05. It showed that an Asian nation could defeat a Western one
What does Mary Rankin see the rising sense of Chinese nationalism as providing?
An impetus for social mobilisation and activism, with more and more poeple openly criticising the government and expressing resentment at foreign intrusion in China
What other movements developed in early 1900s China other than those seeking to recovery railway and mining rights?
- Anti-footbinding societies
- student associations
- societies for constitutional government
What boycott happened in China in 1905?
Anti-American Boycott against American goods
What was boycotted in 1908?
Japanese goods after weapons were found being smuggled in a japanese ship
By what means did the public become involved in public affairs in late Qing China?
They formed associations and established newspapers to published their views
Who encouraged the Anti-American Boycott?
Provincial officials
What sort of people were part of the social movements that developed in the late Qing era?
Women, students, labourers, employees, and beggars - not just provincial elites that would usually be the case
What important role does mary Rankin see the growing number of newspapers playing in moblising public activism during the late Qing?
- they presented and justified activists’ views
- attacked Qing officials
What prompted the Anti-American Boycott in 1905?
The Chinese Exclusion Treaty of 1882 that banned immigration from China to America, and influenced violence against Chinese people in America during the San Fransico Plague of 1900-1904
What did rights recovery movements aim to do?
Cancel or buy back concessions to foreigners or stall future ones by creating chinese companies
Why did anger at foreign encroachment turn to anger at the Qing?
Because the Qing were seen to be enabling foreign involvement and not protecting China adequately
What did activists claim giving away railway rights to foreigners would do?
Put the lives of the people of China in others’ hands, losing their wealth and becoming slaves to foreigners
Why did some activists claim Chinese would become slaves of slaves?
The people, they claimed, were already slaves to the Manchu Qing dynasty, and the Qing were becoming subservient to foreigners
What was the struggle that Chinese citizens seeking to protect railways were involved in?
Struggling against a government seeking to hand over Chinese property and with it, Chinese soveriengty
How did activists view foreign loans given to China?
As undermining Chinese sovereignty
As well as foreign ownership, what other type of ownership were the Chinese public scared of?
Centralised state ownership, something they thought the Qing was aiming for with the railways funded by international loans
What did activists see nationalisation of railways as equivalent to?
Destroying the country by allowing foreigners to own railways
What to movements found common cause under the Qing based on their common sense of Chinese nationalism?
Rights Protection Movement and the push for constitutionalism
Quote by Mary Rankin about the link between railway and constitutional movements?
“the railway and constitutionalist movements were inseparable”
What did activists see foreign loans as allowing the Qing to do?
Increase their coercive power to control private railway companies and reduce the likelihood of a constitution being created
What did activists think the Qing’s ultimate goal was, and saw their actions as leading to?
Control over “the right to life, wealth, and freedom” - Mary Rankin
How were the New Policies of the Qing viewed according to Mary Rankin?
As declaring war on the citizens of China
What three things did the rights recovery movement focus on?
1 - foreigners destroying Chinese sovereignty
2 - officials failing to protect the country
3 - representational government giving societal elites a formal share of political power
How did activists think China would be saved?
By sharing power with social elites in the provinces and moving it away from the central government
What rights did activists want that they thought would help prevent an increasingly tyrannical Qing?
- constitutionally guaranteed political participation
- laws protecting property rights
- the freedom of provinces to manage their own local and economic affairs
Although activists were calling for move formal political participation for social elites, not the general public, what did they claim this would do?
They claimed everyone would benefit from it
What event turned constitutionalism into a nation-wide movement in China?
The Russo-Japanese War
When was the Russo-Japanese War?
1904-1905
Why was the Russo-Japanese War influential in the push for constitutionalism?
Japan was a constitutional monarchy, whereas Russia was an imperial autocracy like China at the time. The fact japan beat ussia was seen as proof that constitutional monarchy was a superior form of government
What did the Qing do in December 1905?
Sent 5 officials to Europe (Britain, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Italy) and America, as well as Japan, to study their constitutions with the view of reforming the Chinese political system along the lines of the most effective of them
Upon their return, what did the 5 officials who had gone abroad to study foreign constitutions advocate and why?
They all returned strong supporters of constitutionalism, believing the wealth and power of foreign nations was derived from the fact they all had constitutions
other than leading to wealth and power for the nation, what did the delegates and the Qing see constitutionalism as doing?
Strengthening the power of the government, not as a way of empowering the people and other reforms at the time hoped
What happended in 1907 as part of the constitutional reforms that had never happened before in China?
The Chinese government formally recognised the right of common people to participate in and discuss political affairs, by inviting all officials and commoners to send proposals on issues of constitutionalism to the government
What group became very active in the constitutional movement?
Students who had studied abroad
How many Chinese students were studying in Japan by 1905?
Eight thousand
What was the first step of the Qing’s move towards constitutionalism?
Administrative reform
What was set up in Sichuan Province in 1908?
The New Tax Bureau
What did the New Tax Bureau do?
Establish branches in every county of the province and assumed total control of levying and collecting taxes in the entire province. This meant taxes were completely controlled by the governor-general of Sichuan
How did the New Tax Bureau extend central government control over the province of Sichuan?
The governor-general worked for the central government and he had full control over levying and collecting taxes
How were taxes levied in Sichuan before the New Tax Bureau?
A magistrate from the provincial government would visit a locality and negotiate the amount of tax to be collected; after the Bureau was created the amount of tax to be collected was predetermined by the central government and refusal to comply would result in being reporting to the provincial government
What was the public reaction to the New Tax Bureau?
They resented it due to the large amounts of tax they demanded
Before the establishment of the New Tax Bureau in Sichuan, who collected the taxes?
Local elites who negotiated the tax amount with the provincial government
What did the New Tax Bureau represent to the local elites?
A diminishing of their power and authority as they no longer had control over taxes, and prompted them to mobilise against the state as it encroached into local affairs
What arguements did local Sichuan elites use against attempts by the provincial government that threatened their authority? (quotes)
“if we pay the money, then we deserve to manage political affairs”
“as the representatives of the people, we need to supervise hpw taxes are levied and spent”
(both from Zheng Xiaowei)
How did Sichuan elites portray themselves?
As representatives of the people
Which three empires vanishes with the end of WWI?
- Ottoman
- Habsburg
- Romanov
How does Robert Gerwarth believe we should view the first world war?
As a war between multi-thnic, global empires, and not a war of European nation-states
How does Robert Gerwarth define empire?
“a polity whose territories and populations are arranged and governed hierarchically in relation to the imperial center”
When did Japan annex Korea and make it a formal part of the japanese empire?
1910
What does Kate McDonald argue Japan tried to do to Korea after annexation?
Assimilate the country in Japanese culture
When was the March First Movement?
1 march 1919
What was the March First Movement?
A protest movement by Korean people that called for independence from Imperial Japan and a stop to the forced assimilation into Japanese culture
What had inspired the March First Movement?
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points that called for self-determination
What did Koreans hope for from America and did they get it?
American support; they did not get any
When does Motti Golani see the idea of partitioning Palestine originating from?
Early 1930s
When was the Balfour Declaration?
1917
What was the Balfour Declaration?
A statement by the British government in support of creating a home for Jewish people in Palestine
How does Motti Golani see Britian governing their Mandate in Palestine under the LoN?
Along the lines of the Balfour Declaration, not with a view to partition
How did the Balfour Declaration differ from partition?
Partition meant the separation of a state; the Balfour Declaration meant one state containing two national groups (Arabs and Jews)
What does Motti Golani see as developing in Palestine during the 1920s?
Two national movements that were opposed to each other
What does Motti Golani see as being the difficulty of the Balfour Declaration?
Realising binationalism - two nations within one state - that was the basis of the Declaration
Where does Motti Golani see the idea for the partition of Palestine originating?
“as part of Zionist strategy, well before the British ever considered it”
Who does Motti Golani credit with devising the partition of Palestine and ‘selling’ it to the British?
Chaim Weizmann
What notbale positions did Chaim Weizmann hold?
President of the World Zionist Organization (WZO) since 1920 and then the first president of Israel in 1949
What does Motti Golani say about the British claiming to have developed the plan for partitioning Palestine?
“the Balfour Declaration and the partition plan - were actually devised by the Zionist leadership and ‘sold’ to the British, who then presented it as their own policy”
What had Chaim Weizmann, as president of the WZO, supported during the 1920s but abandoned in the 30s in favour of partition?
British mandate rule of Palestine on the basis of the Balfour Declaration
