1.8.1 Other contemporary urban environmental issues

Question 1

How are the impacts of atmospheric pollution in developed countries changing?

Answer 1

In many developed countries, reliance on fossil fuels is decreasing, and use of less-polluting energy sources (e.g. natural gas) is increasing. As a result, air quality in many cities has improved since 1950. However, car ownership is increasing, and congestion can cause significant atmospheric pollution.

In many developed countries, there are strategies to limit air pollution, such as promoting green modes of transport, e.g. cycling, and expanding green spaces in urban centres.

Question 2

How are the impacts of atmospheric pollution in developing countries changing?

Answer 2

Many developing countries and emerging economies still rely heavily on fossil fuels to meet their energy needs. Increases in industrial activity and car ownership, combined with a lack of regulation of emissions, mean that atmospheric pollution is often severe.

In the developing world, there has been some progress towards reducing urban air pollution. For example, most countries have phased out the use of leaded petrol. However, progress is slow.

Question 3

Why is water pollution common in cities?

Answer 3

• Cities have a high population density, so they produce a lot of waste. This includes wastewater and sewage, as well as oil and metals on road surfaces from cars. These pollutants can enter watercourses, e.g. if sewers are inadequate, or in runoff when it rains.
• Many cities have a high concentration of factories, which may discharge industrial waste into watercourses.

Question 4

What can water pollution cause?

Answer 4

Water pollution can cause damage to ecosystems, and contaminated drinking water can cause health problems, e.g. dysentery and cholera.

Question 5

How can water pollution be managed?

Answer 5

Primarily through laws to stop discharge of untreated waste from industries and provision of plants to treat wastewater. Strategies such as catchment management and SUDS can also help.

• In developed countries, there are strict regulations about discharge of untreated water, and water quality is monitored. However, littler dropped in or around water and pollutants in surface runoff still cause pollution.
• In many developing countries and emerging economies, there are few regulations and inadequate provision of treatment facilities. This means that untreated industrial waste and sewage often enter watercourses and water pollution in common.

Question 6

When does urban dereliction happen?

Answer 6

When economic activity in urban areas declines and buildings become run down.

Question 7

What is the pattern of urban dereliction?

Answer 7

• The movement of manufacturing overseas and the decentralisation of industry leads to industrial decline. Many unemployed people leave urban areas in search of work.
• If lots of people leave the area, shops may be forced to close and services go into decline. As industry, people and services move out, they leave empty buildings – e.g. factories, homes and shops.
• Empty buildings and derelict areas often have problems with vandalism, graffiti and crime.

Question 8

What are some strategies used to manage urban dereliction?

Answer 8

The redevelopment of former factories into commercial and residential properties, the construction of new housing in derelict areas and the creation of green spaces, e.g. parks.

However, some cities lack investment and areas remain derelict, e.g. Detroit.

Question 9

Where is urban dereliction more common?

Answer 9

Developed countries - because widespread deindustrialisation has occured.

Question 10

Case study for Brownfield Site Development

Answer 10

Bristol

Question 11

What percentage of new houses in Briston were built on Brownfield sites between 2006 and 2013?

Answer 11

94%

Question 12

What are the difficulties associated with building on brownfield sites?

Answer 12

• Thousands of brownfield sites have been contaminated by the previous industrial uses and may present significant risk to human health and the wider environment. – Decontamination is time consuming and very expensive.
• Not all brownfield sites have the physical access necessary for residential development.
• The neighbouring land may still be used for industrial purposes making the new site unsuitable for new homes, for example, a sewage treatment works or heavy industrial plant.

Question 13

What are the advantages of building on brownfield sites?

Answer 13

• Starts to address the pressing need for more homes.
• Reduces urban sprawl and protects the green belt.
• Improves the urban environment.
• Reduces demand on car use (commuting from suburbs).

Question 14

What are the two case studies for other contemporary urban environmental issues?

Answer 14

• Bangkok, Thailand
• Manchester, UK

Question 15

Air pollution in Bangkok

Answer 15

• A rapid rise in car ownership, coupled with poor vehicle maintenance, is causing high levels of air pollution. In 2011, some pollutants, e.g. benzene, were more than three times the acceptable levels in some areas.
• In the early 21st century, air pollution caused around 5000 premature deaths per year in Bangkok.
• The government has taken steps to reduce air pollution, including improvements to public transport, such as bus lanes and a new subway. Drivers can be fined if their cars are found to emit high levels of exhaust fumes.

Question 16

Water pollution in Bangkok

Answer 16

• Poor sewage systems and ineffective waste management mean that water pollution is severe. River water contains unsafe levels of ammonia and coliform bacteria, which come mostly from human waste.
• Since the 1960s, there have been various plans for improving sewage systems in the city in order to reduce pollution levels in the rivers. However, these plans have been too expensive to implement.

Question 17

Urban dereliction in Bangkok

Answer 17

• A lot of buildings in Bangkok were left half-finished when Asia experienced a financial crisis in 1997. Some have since fallen into disrepair, and suffered from vandalism and graffiti.
• However, economic growth since 2010 has led to the completion of many unfinished buildings. The government offers incentives for foreign investment – this may help to decrease the number of empty buildings.

Question 18

Air pollution in Manchester

Answer 18

• Closure of factories and better management of air quality has reduced air pollution. This has reduced the frequency of illness associated with poor air quality, e.g. bronchitis.
• Cars are the largest contributor to air pollution in Manchester today. To reduce car use, the local government is improving bus services, constructing cycle paths and expanding pedestrian walkways across the city.

Question 19

Water pollution in Manchester

Answer 19

• Until the late 20th century, the River Irwell and Manchester Ship Canal were badly polluted by industry and sewage. Since 1987, extensive work has been done to clean up these waterways, e.g. by increasing the oxygen content of the water, encouraging aquatic plant growth and collecting litter.
• To reduce water pollution caused by surface runoff from roads, the local government is installing SUDS, e.g. green areas and porous pavements have been installed in Salford Quays.

Question 20

Urban dereliction in Manchester

Answer 20

• In the late 1980s and early 1990s, deindustrialisation and job losses had caused many people to leave the city. The city centre was underpopulated, and many shops and residential areas were abandoned.
• Large-scale redevelopment of the city began in 1996. Former mills and factories were converted to luxury flats, open spaces were improved and funding was provided for new businesses, such as the Lowry Gallery in Salford Quays. From 2001 to 2011, the population of the city centre nearly tripled to around 18,000.