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AP2 B6 > 167 - finish > Flashcards

167 - finish Flashcards

1
Q

Pressure inside a spherical (curved) surface is inversely proportional to its radius

A

Law of Laplace

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2
Q

This explains why smaller alveoli have higher pressure (more to overcome)
Like blowing up a smaller balloon vs a bigger one

A

Law of Laplace

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3
Q

P=2T/r

P = pressure
T = tension
r = radius
A

Law of Laplace

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4
Q

Premature newborns born before their lungs have the capability of producing surfactant

Without surfactant, alveoli collapse much easier

This causes a reduction in breathing capability

Usually enough production by ~ week 35

A

Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

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5
Q

Partial or complete collapse of the lung

A

Atelectasis

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6
Q

Anything that causes alveoli to collapse
Being ventilated (sometimes even during surgery)
Constrictive pressure (garments, pleural effusions)
Pneumonia
Neuromuscular diseases (unable to take full breath)

A

Atelectasis

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7
Q

A measure of how much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall

A

Compliance of the Lungs

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8
Q

lungs and chest wall expand easily

A

High Compliance

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9
Q

lungs and chest wall resist expansion

A

Low Compliance

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10
Q

Compliance determined by elasticity and surface tension

Lungs normally have high compliance due to elastic fibers in lung tissue and ____ in surface tension

A

Surfactant

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11
Q

Walls of airways (especially _____) offer resistance to airflow in and out of lungs

A

Bronchioles

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12
Q

As lungs expand during inhalation, airway walls are pulled outward, enlarging the ___, decreasing resistance

A

Lumen

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13
Q

As lungs recoil during exhalation, airway walls return to normal size, shrinking the lumen, increasing ____

A

Resistance

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14
Q

Airway Resistance:

Also regulated by degree of contraction/relaxation of ____ muscle in walls of airways

A

smooth

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15
Q

Normal pattern for quiet breathing

Can consist of shallow, deep, or combined breathing

A

Eupnea

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16
Q

Pattern of shallow (chest) breathing

Upward and outward movement of chest due to contraction of external intercostal muscles

A

Costal Breathing

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17
Q

Pattern of deep breathing

Consists of outward movement of abdomen due to constriction and descent of diaphragm

A

Diaphragmatic Breathing

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18
Q

Respirations provide humans with methods for expressing emotions such as:
Laughing
Sighing
Sobbing
Respiratory movements can be modified and controlled during talking and singing

A

Modified Respiratory Movements

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19
Q

Stimulated by foreign matter in trachea or bronchi irritating mucosal lining/cilia
Epiglottis and glottis close + contraction of expiratory muscles = increased air pressure in lungs
Epiglottis and glottis open rapidly which causes a burst of pressurized air to be expelled quickly

A

Cough Reflex

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20
Q

Similar to cough reflex
Only difference is that it’s stimulated by irritants in the nasal cavity
Droplets from a sneeze can travel 100mph and as far as 12 ft

A

Sneeze Reflex

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21
Q

Involuntary, spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm

Usually occurs during inhalation which abruptly closes the glottis which causes the characteristic sound

A

Hiccup

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22
Q

Apparatus used to measure volume of air exchanged during breathing and the respiratory rate

A

Spirometer/Respirometer

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23
Q

Spirometer/Respirometer

The record of this is called a ____

A

Spirogram

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24
Q

Spirogram:
Inhalation is recorded as an ____ deflection
Exhalation is recorded as a ____ deflection

A

Inhale - Upward

Exhale - Down

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25
Q

Spirometry Values:
Male values are listed as primary
Female values are within parentheses

A

ladies have the curves

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26
Q

Spirometry slide 181

A

take a deep breath

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27
Q

At rest, healthy adult averages 12 breaths a minute

Each inhalation and exhalation moves ____mL of air in and out of lungs

A

500mL

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28
Q

Tidal Volume (Vt)

A

Volume of one breath – normal 500mL

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29
Q 
Minute Volume (MV)
Total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute

Resp rate x tidal volume

12 breaths/min x 500mL/breath = (6000mL/min or 6 liters/min)

A

Minute to win it

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30
Q

In typical normal adult, __% of tidal volume (350mL) actually reaches the respiratory zone

A

70%

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31
Q

The other 30% (150mL) remains in the ___ ___ (nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles)

A

Conducting Airways

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32
Q

This 30% lies in something called the ___ ___ ___

It cannot be used for gas exchange

A

Anatomic Dead Space

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33
Q

Alveolar Vent Rate = 70% (resp zone) x breaths/min

AVR = 350mL x 12breaths/min

AVR = 4200mL/min

A

Volume that actually reaches respiratory zone in one minute

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34
Q

By taking a very deep breath, you bring in additional air

3100mL EXTRA in males,

1900mL EXTRA in females

Even more can be inhaled if it is followed by a forceful exhale

A

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

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35
Q

Inhale normally (500mL), but exhale forcefully using accessory muscles

Another 1200mL for males, another 700mL for females

The amount over the tidal volume that is exhaled

A

Expiratory Reserve Volume

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36
Q

The air that cannot be exhaled (or the alveoli would collapse) as well as air left in non-collapsible airways

Cannot be determined by spirometry

Males (~1200mL), Females (~1100mL)

A

Residual Volume

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37
Q

___ ____ = tidal volume + insp reserve vol

A

Inspiratory capacity = tidal volume + insp reserve vol

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38
Q

___ ___ ___ = residual volume + expiratory reserve volume

A

Functional residual capacity = residual volume + expiratory reserve volume

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39
Q

Inspiratory capacity = ___ ___ + insp reserve vol

A

Tidal Volume

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40
Q

Functional residual capacity = ___ ___ + expiratory reserve volume

A

Residual Volume

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41
Q

___ ___ = insp reserve vol + tidal vol + expir reserve vol

A

Vital Capacity

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42
Q

__ __ __ = vital capacity + residual volume

A

Total Lung Capacity

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43
Q

take a peak at slide 193

A

Breath of fresh air

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44
Q

Dependent on several factors
Composition of inspired air
Alveolar ventilation
Concentration of dissolved gases in mixed venous blood

A

Alveolar Air

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45
Q

Atmospheric air is composed of
79% nitrogen
21% oxygen
<1% other gases (ie: carbon dioxide)

A

Air head

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46
Q

As air is inspired, it warms rapidly to body temperature and becomes saturated with water vapor (humidified)

Composition of alveolar air begins to change when the air hits the ___ ___ and exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide begin

A

Respiratory Zone

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47
Q

Dalton’s Law:
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present
The pressures will remain constant (one gas will not compress more to accommodate the others)
The pressure of a gas in a mixture is called its ___ ___

A

Partial Pressure

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48
Q

Dalton’s Law:

The total pressure is calculated by adding the __ __ of all gases in the mixture

A

Partial Pressures

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49
Q

Dalton’s Law:
Example – atmospheric pressure (760mmHg)
Atm pres = Pn2 + Po2 + Par + PH2O + PCO2 + Pother gases

A

Dalton’s Law Math!

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50
Q

Dalton’s Law:
These partial pressures of gases determine the movement of O2 and CO2 between

The atmosphere and lungs
The lungs and blood
The blood and tissue cells

A

Dalton’s Gas Law

51
Q

Dalton’s Gas Law:
Each gas moves from a higher partial pressure space to a lower partial pressure space
The higher the partial pressure (or larger gradient), the ___ the gas moves

A

Faster

52
Q

The quantity of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and it’s solubility

A

Henry’s Law

53
Q

Soda bottle: while unopened, the gas (space) above the liquid is almost pure CO2, after removing the cap the gas escaping (hiss sound) is the CO2…the pressure is now lower in the bottle allowing some of the CO2 that was dissolved in the liquid to come out of solution…this gives the characteristic bubbles you see climbing the walls of the bottle

A

Henry’s Law for those who don’t read good much

54
Q

Henry’s Law:
In body fluids, ability for gas to stay in solution (dissolved/solubility) is greater when it’s partial pressure is ___ and when it’s solubility in water is higher

A

Higher

55
Q

Henry’s Law:
In comparison, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma as it’s ____ is 24x’s greater than O2

Even though air we breath contains mostly (78.6%) nitrogen, very little is dissolved in blood as it’s ____ is very low

A

Solubility

56
Q

Diffusion of O2 from the air in the alveoli to the blood in the pulmonary capillaries

Diffusion of the CO2 from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli

A

External Respiration:

Pulmonary Gas Exchange

57
Q

Converts deoxygenated blood (from right side of heart) to oxygenated blood (that returns to left side of heart)

A

External Respiration: Pulmonary gas exchange

58
Q

Oxygen (O2)
Diffusion continues until the pressures are equal
Alveolar air – PO2 = 100mmHg

Capillary blood – PO2 = 40mmHg

So this means that O2 moves from the ____ to the capillary for transport to the rest of the body

A

Alveolus

59
Q 
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Diffusion continues until pressures are equal
Capillary blood – PCO2 = 45mmHg

Alveolar air – PCO2 = 40mmHg

So this means that CO2 moves from the ___ to the alveolus to be removed through exhalation

A

Blood

60
Q

Systemic Gas Exchange:
Diffusion of O2 from the blood in the capillaries to the tissue cells
Diffusion of the CO2 from the tissue cells to the blood in capillaries

A

Internal Respiration

61
Q

Converts oxygenated blood (in the capillaries) to deoxygenated blood (by picking up CO2 from the tissue cells)

A

Internal Respiration

62
Q

Oxygen
Diffusion continues until the pressures are equal
Systemic Capillaries – PO2 = 100mmHg

Tissue Cells – PO2 = 40mmHg

So this means that O2 moves from the ___ ___ to the tissue cells

A

Systemic Capillaries - Internal Respiration

63
Q 
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Diffusion continues until pressures are equal
Tissue Cells – PCO2 = 45mmHg

Systemic Capillaries – PCO2 = 40mmHg

So this means that CO2 moves from the tissue cells to the systemic capillaries for transport to ___

A

Alveoli

64
Q

Slide 208 for the external/internal respiration

A

pictures of air!

exchange that is

65
Q

The more the surface area, the faster and easier the gas exchange

As many capillaries surround each alveolus, there is ample opportunity for this process to occur

Any pulmonary disorder that decreases the functional surface area, decreases the rate of ___ ___

A

External Respiration

ex: emphysema

slide 210-smoking is bad mmmk

66
Q

The respiratory membrane is very thin (0.5 micrometers) so diffusion occurs quickly
Also, the capillaries are so small that RBC’s must pass through them single file

This minimizes the ___ ___ from the alveolar air space to the hemoglobin in RBC’s

A

Diffusion Distance

67
Q

Buildup of interstitial fluid in between alveoli or fluid within the alveoli, slows this rate of gas exchange because of the ___ ___

A

Diffusion Distance

Ex: Pulmonary Edema

also slide 212 - water in the lungs

68
Q

Oxygen Measurements:
Helps us to understand the relationship of arterial, oxygen saturation to the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood
Very important as it relates to disease

Dissociation – detachment, separation

____ – attraction (in this case, O2 to hemoglobin)

A

Affinity

69
Q

PaO2- partial pressure of dissolved (free) oxygen in arterial blood (the only oxygen that exerts pressure)

A

This is measured by an arterial blood draw

70
Q

SaO2 – measurement of oxygen that is bound to hemoglobin (____) in arterial blood

A

Saturation

71
Q

SpO2 – measurement of the oxygen that is bound to ____ peripherally

This is readily measured by a pulse oximeter (why we like to see %’s above 95)

Pulse oximeter uses colorimetric measurements (looks for color)

A

Hemoglobin

72
Q

Carbon Monoxide:
CO has much higher affinity for hemoglobin

If oxygen is knocked off hemoglobin, more is dissolved

This will increase our __

A

PaO2

73
Q

Carbon Monoxide:
CO has much higher affinity for hemoglobin
If more CO is attached to hemoglobin, less O2 is attached
This reduces the ___

A

SaO2

74
Q

Carbon Monoxide:
If you drew labs, this may be misleading
Normal or elevated PaO2
SaO2 will be decreased
SpO2 (measured by pulse oximeter) would pick up on the color it is scanning for because _____ (like oxyhemoglobin) is red in color…would give a falsely normal reading

A

Carboxyhemoglobin

75
Q

Draw a serum carboxyhemoglobin level (can be venous)

Treatment is with 100% oxygen to “bump” the __ off of the hemoglobin

A

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

what about hyperbaric chambers?

76
Q

Oxygen does not dissolve easily
Only ~1.5% of inhaled O2 is dissolved in __ ____
~98.5% of O2 is bound to hemoglobin in RBC’s

A

Blood plasma

77
Q

The 98.5% of O2 bound to ____ is trapped because of the pressure to stay bound
Only the 1.5% can diffuse into tissue unless the pressure changes

A

Hemoglobin

78
Q

Most important factor that determines how much O2 is bound to hemoglobin is the ___ ___ of oxygen

A

Partial Pressure

79
Q

The higher the PO2, the more O2 combines with partially saturated hemoglobin to make it fully saturated

This is easy in the lungs as the PO2 is higher

The amount remaining by the time it gets to the tissue is much less as PO2 decreases significantly

When this decreases, O2 is offloaded into the tissue

A

Oxygen transport

80
Q

This graphical representation depicts the relationship between the % saturation of hemoglobin and PO2 (partial pressure of O2)

slide 223

A

As PO2 gets higher, the affinity for O2 to bind to hemoglobin gets higher

60-100mmHg PO2 shows almost 90% of affinity for O2 to bind in the lungs

At 40mmHg PO2 reduces affinity to ~75%

At 20mmHg PO2 affinity reduces to 35%

81
Q

As pressures decreases, oxygen does not want to stay attached to ___

A

Hemoglobin

82
Q

Four factors affect the affinity of O2?

A
  1. Acidity (pH)
  2. PCO2
  3. Temperature
  4. 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)
83
Q

The changing affinity of hemoglobin for O2 is an example of how ___ ___ adjust body activities to cellular needs

Keep in mind that metabolically active tissues need O2, and that they produce acids, CO2, and heat as wastes

A

Homeostatic Mechanisms

84
Q

As pH decreases (more acidic), the affinity for O2 ___, and dissociation occurs more readily

A

Decreases

85
Q

A decrease in pH causes the whole curve to shift to the right

This means that at higher PO2, the saturation of hemoglobin is ___ than if the pH were normal

A

Less

86
Q

An increase in pH (more ____), the affinity for O2 increases, dissociation is more difficult

A

Alkalinic

87
Q

An increase in pH causes whole curve to shift left

This means that at higher PO2, the saturation of hemoglobin is ___ than if the pH were normal

A

Higher

88
Q

Effect of pH on affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

A

Slide 226

89
Q

Much like pH because if ___ increases, pH decreases

This then shows the same structure on the dissociation curve as pH

A

CO2 (PCO2)

90
Q

As ____ increases, the affinity for O2 to hemoglobin decreases
Similar to the pH and CO2 curves, but wider spread

A

temperature

91
Q

Effect of PCO2 on affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen

A

on slide 228

92
Q

Temperature effect in graphical format

A

slide 229

93
Q

This is a substance found in RBC’s

Formed in RBC’s when they break down glucose to produce ATP (glycolysis)

A

2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)

94
Q

Increased levels of this decrease the affinity for O2 to bind to hemoglobin

The higher the level of ___, the more O2 is unloaded from hemoglobin (into tissues)

A

2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)

95
Q

Under normal conditions, each 100mL of ____ blood contains the equivalent of 53mL of CO2, which is transported in three forms

A

deoxygenated

96
Q

Under normal conditions, each 100mL of deoxygenated blood contains the equivalent of 53mL of CO2, which is transported in three forms?

A

Dissolved CO2
Carbamino compounds
Bicarbonate ions

97
Q

smallest percentage (~7%), when this reaches the lungs, it is exhaled

A

Dissolved CO2

98
Q

23%, combines with amino acids and proteins (hemoglobin is most prevalent protein) so most of this is bound to hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin)

A

Carbamino Compounds

99
Q

~70% H2CO3 dissociates in presence of carbonic anhydrase into CO2 and H2O – we exhale the CO2

A

Bicarbonate ions

100
Q

At rest, ____ of oxygen is used each minute by body cells

During exercise oxygen use increases 15-20 fold in normal healthy adults
___-___mL

In elite endurance athletes, this increases to 30 fold
____ EACH MINUTE!!!

A

200mL

3,000 - 4,000mL

6,000mL

101
Q

During ____, the muscles involved are voluntary, but they receive nerve input to make them contract

The absence of this nerve impulse/input is what allows the exhalation to be passive

A

inspiration

102
Q

These impulses are sent from clusters of neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons

This widely dispersed group of neurons is collectively called the __ __ which is divided into three areas on the basis of their function

A

Respiration center

103
Q

Respiratory center pic

A

slide 236

104
Q

The ___ ___ center in the medulla oblongata

Function of this is to control the basic rhythm of respiration

There are inspiration and expiratory areas within the ___ ___ area

A

Medullary rhythmicity

105
Q

The ___ ___ in the pons
Helps to coordinate transition between inhalation and exhalation

Major effect is to inhibit the inspiratory area before the lungs become too full with air

Regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body, each breath

A

Pneumotaxic center

106
Q

The apneustic center in the pons:
This area also helps coordinate the transition between inhalation and exhalation
Major effect is to ___ ___, or -_____

A

prolong inhalation
-or-
provide deep inhalation

107
Q

This area is inhibited by pulmonary stretch-receptors and also by the pneumotaxic center
The ___ ___ can only provide so much inhalation guidance before the pneumotaxic center takes over

A

Apneustic center

108
Q

As the ___ ___ has connections with the respiratory center, we can voluntarily alter our pattern of breathing, or even refuse to breathe at all…for a short time
___ ___ is not needed to continue to breath
As long as brainstem (medulla oblongata and pons) is functioning, you can continue breathing

A

Cerebral Cortex

109
Q

Voluntary control is important as it prevents us from inhaling water or irritating gases if exposed

This ability is limited though by the build up of CO2 and H+

When CO2 and H+ increase to a certain level, the ___ ___ is strongly stimulated which overrides the holding of the breath

A

Inspiratory center

110
Q

Chemoreceptors:

Certain chemical stimuli modulate how quickly and deeply we breath

A

O2, H+ and CO2

111
Q

Chemoreceptors in two locations of the respiratory system monitor levels of these chemicals

A

Central Chemorecptors

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

112
Q

located in/near the medulla oblongata

These respond to changes in H+ and CO2 only

A

Central Chemoreceptors

113
Q

located in aortic bodies and carotid bodies

These respond to changes in H+, CO2, O2

A

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

114
Q

As soon as exercise begins, your heart rate and depth of breathing increase even before changes in PO2, PCO2, and H+ occur

These changes occur from the movement of the joints and muscles in anticipation of changes in the chemical composition..picked up by:

A

Proprioceptors

115
Q

other influences on respiration:

A 
Limbic system
Temperature
Pain
Stretching the anal sphinchter muscle
Irritation of airways
Blood Pressure
116
Q

Anticipation of activity or emotion stimulates this system which send impulses to inspiratory area

A

Limbic system

117
Q

Increase in ___ increases respiration and vice versa

A sudden cold stimulus (polar bear club) causes a temporary apnea

A

Temperature

118
Q

Sudden, severe ___ brings a brief apnea
Prolonged somatic ___ increases respirations
Visceral ___ may slow the respiratory rate

A

Whats your prediction for the fight Clubber…

“Pain”

119
Q

Increases respiratory rate

Sometimes used to stimulate newborns to breath, also adults who may have stopped breathing

A

Stretching the anal sphincter

120
Q

Physical or chemical irritation of pharynx or larynx may bring an immediate cessation of breathing followed by a cough or sneeze

A

Irritation of the airways

121
Q

Carotid/aortic baroreceptors detect changes in __ __

Sudden rise in __ __ lowers respiration rate

Drop in __ __ increases respiration rate

A

Blood Pressure

122
Q

As we age, chest wall, airways and tissue of respiratory tract become less elastic, which…?

A

Decreases lung capacity

123
Q

with Aging:
Vital capacity can decrease by as much as 35% by age 70

Decrease in blood O2

Decrease in alveolar macrophages

Decrease in ciliary action of epithelium

A

All of this leads to being more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other pulmonary disorders

AP2 B6 (3 decks)

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