1.4 Education - Gender Differences In Achievement Flashcards
What are the patterns of gender differences in educational achievement?
Girls outperform boys
How has gender impacted educational experiences?
Major impact
Who has overtaken whom in educational achievement?
Girls have overtaken boys
End of year 1: Girls vs. boys in 7 areas?
Girls ahead by 7-17%
Key Stages 1 to 3: Gender performance?
Girls do better
Subject with widest gender gap in Key Stages 1 to 3?
English
GCSE: Gender performance difference?
About 10%
AS and A-Level: Gender performance?
Girls do better
Who is more likely to achieve distinctions in vocational subjects?
Girls
What is overshadowed by the attention given to girls outperforming boys in vocational subjects?
Underachievement of some girls
What will be covered in this topic?
Gender gap in achievement
Impact on girls’ attitude towards education
Role models and qualifications
Significant change in women’s employment
From 53% to 67%
1970 EPA significance
Equal pay for women
What is the ‘glass ceiling’?
Invisible barrier for women
What did Sharpe’s 1994 study reveal about girls’ expectations?
Shift to career prioritization
How did girls’ priorities change from the 1970s to the 1990s?
From family to career
What did Fuller (2011) find about girls’ educational success?
Part of identity
What do girls believe in according to Fuller (2011)?
Meritocracy
What do Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2010) link to women’s career aspirations?
Trend in individualism
What do careers offer women according to Beck and Beck-Gernsheim (2010)?
Recognition and self-sufficiency
What do working class girls perceive about job availability?
Limited jobs
How do traditional gender identities affect working class girls’ education?
Limited aspirations
What has influenced the education policy regarding gender?
Feminist ideas
What do GIST and WISE encourage?
Girls in science and technology
What did the National Curriculum in 1988 remove?
Source of gender inequality
Who sees equal opportunities policies as key to girls’ achievement?
Boaler (1998)
What has been removed to improve education success?
Barriers
What type of schooling is mentioned as improved?
Meritocratic
What is the significance of the increase in female teachers and heads?
Shows women can achieve positions of importance
What does an individual need to become a teacher?
Lengthy and successful education
What does Gorard (2005) claim about the gender gap in achievement?
Sharp increase in 1989 with GCSEs introduction
What does Gorard conclude about the gender gap?
Change in assessment
What has contributed to girls doing better in education?
Increased use of oral exams
According to Elwood (2005), what has more influence on final grades?
Exams
According to Francis (2001), how are boys disciplined compared to girls?
More harshly
What was Swann’s (1998) finding about boys’ communication styles in class?
Dominate discussions
What communication style do girls prefer, according to Swann (1998)?
Pair/group work
Why might teachers respond more positively to girls, according to Swann (1998)?
Better listening/cooperate
What potential effect does positive teacher interaction have on girls?
Self-fulfilling prophecy
What effect has challenging gender stereotypes had on girls’ learning?
Removed barriers
Who claims that teachers have challenged gender stereotypes since the 1980s?
Weiner (1995)
How has marketisation affected schools’ views on girls?
More desirable recruits
What did Jackson (1998) find about high achieving girls?
Attractive to schools
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in education according to Jackson?
Girls recruited do well
Why are boys less attractive to better schools according to Slee (1998)?
Behaviour difficulties
How much more likely are boys to be excluded compared to girls?
4x more likely
What term is used for boys in schools due to their behavior?
Liability students
What do Liberal Feminists celebrate in relation to girls’ achievement?
Progress made so far
What do Liberal Feminists believe will lead to further progress?
Equal opportunities policies
How do Liberal Feminists view education?
As meritocratic
What do Radical Feminists argue about the education system?
It’s still patriarchal
What is one issue girls face at school according to Radical Feminists?
Sexual harassment
What limits girls’ career options according to Radical Feminists?
Subject choices
In what role are male teachers more likely to be found?
Heads of secondary schools
What concept does Weiner (1993) associate with secondary school history?
Women free zone
What do Archer et al. (2010) argue about working class girls?
Conflict between identities
What do working class girls gain from peers?
Symbolic capital
What do identities contribute to in education?
Social class differences
What strategies did the girls adopt?
Hyper-heterosexual feminine identity
What is ‘othering’ according to Archer?
Symbolic violence
How is the ‘ideal female pupil’ defined?
De-sexualised and middle class
How did having a boyfriend affect working-class girls in school?
Lowered aspirations
What was one conflict faced by ‘loud’ working-class girls?
Teacher expectations
What dilemma did working-class girls face?
Symbolic or educational capital
Why do working class girls want to go to university?
To help families
What reflects the motivation of working class girls according to Skeggs (1997)?
Caring identities
What is a key feature of working class habitus according to Archer?
Local preference
What conflict arises from working class feminine identities?
Educational success
What is a major cause of underachievement?
Self exclusion
What is a major factor for boys falling behind in school?
Poor literacy and language skills
What activity do mothers spend less time doing with their sons?
Reading
How is reading perceived in relation to gender?
Feminine activity
What cultural difference affects language skills between boys and girls?
Bedroom culture
What policies aim to improve boys’ achievement?
National Literacy Strategy
What has happened to the manufacturing industry since the 1980s?
Relocated overseas for cheap labor
Who argues there is an ‘identity crisis for men’ due to job decline?
Mitsos and Browne
What is one consequence of the decline of traditional men’s jobs?
Lack of self-esteem
What types of jobs have declined that affects men’s employment?
Manual working class jobs
Sewell (2006): Why do boys fall behind in education?
Feminised curriculum
What traits does a feminised curriculum fail to nurture according to Sewell (2006)?
Competitiveness, leadership
According to Sewell (2006), who benefits more from coursework?
Girls
What is the National Literacy Strategy focused on?
Improving boys’ reading
What initiative encourages fathers to be more involved?
Dads and Sons
What is one strategy to raise boys’ achievement?
Same sex teaching
What are Equal Opportunities Policies aimed at?
Ensure equality for girls
What does WISE encourage for girls?
Non-traditional careers
What is emphasized in the National Curriculum?
Same subjects for boys and girls
What is a notable issue in primary education?
Shortage of male teachers
What percentage of primary school teachers are male?
0.14
What percentage of 8-11 year old boys have no lessons with a male teacher?
0.39
What is argued about the culture of primary school?
Feminised
What percentage of 7-8 year olds felt their teacher’s gender mattered?
Two-thirds
What approach do most teachers use according to Read (2008)?
Masculine disciplinarian
Who researched the construction of masculinity in working class boys?
Epstein (1998)
What are working class boys subjected to if they appear as ‘swots’?
Harassment, labelling, homophobic abuse
Critics of feminism claim girls have it all?
Yes, gender equality policies unnecessary
Who argues against the view of feminism critics?
Feminists like Ringrose
What fear do feminists associate with boys’ underachievement?
Dangerous, unemployable underclass
What problem does focus on failing boys ignore?
Disadvantaged working class and ethnic minority pupils
What issues faced by girls are ignored when focusing on achievement?
Sexual harassment, bullying, self-esteem
Who highlighted the neglect of girls’ issues due to focus on underachieving boys?
Osler (2006)
How do girls typically disengage from school compared to boys?
Quietly
What behavior do boys exhibit that attracts teachers’ attention?
Laddish behaviour
What example does Osler give to illustrate neglect of girls’ issues?
Mentoring schemes for black boys
What is a misconception about boys’ achievement?
Boys are a lost cause
How has the performance of boys and girls changed?
Improved over recent years
What is the gender gap within the same social class?
Rarely greater than 12 percentage points
How does the gender gap vary across different social classes?
Much wider
What can be as much as 44 points ahead between social classes?
Girls’ achievement
Which ethnic group’s gender gap is greater than others?
Black Caribbean pupils
How do black girls define their femininity according to Fuller?
Success and independence
How do black boys define their masculinity according to Sewell?
Opposition to education
Which factors interplay in educational achievement?
Class, ethnicity, gender
Which subject do boys tend to choose for D&T?
Graphics or resistant materials
Which subject do girls tend to choose for D&T?
Food technology
Which subjects do boys tend to choose at A Level?
Maths/physics
Which subjects do girls tend to choose at A Level?
Sociology, English or languages
At what stage are gendered subject choices more noticeable?
A Level
Does the National Curriculum offer much freedom in subject choice?
No
What do GIST and WISE question?
Effectiveness of policies
What is the gender ratio in childcare apprentices?
1 in 100 are boys
How does early socialisation influence subject choice?
Shapes gender identity
What traits are encouraged in boys by teachers?
Toughness and initiative
What traits are encouraged in girls by teachers?
Quiet and helpful
What do Murphy and Elwood argue about subject choices?
Boys read hobby books, girls read stories.
Why is science seen as a male subject?
Male teachers, examples favor boys.
Who argues that boys dominate in science labs?
Kelly
What are ‘gender domains’?
Tasks viewed as male or female
What shapes beliefs about ‘gender domains’?
Early experiences
Which context do girls prefer in maths tests?
Food/nutrition
Which context do boys prefer in maths tests?
Cars
What do children feel more confident in?
Tasks in their gender domain
What are the trends in D&T subject choice?
Girls choose food technology; boys choose graphics/resistant materials.
What subjects do boys typically choose at A Level?
Maths and physics
What subjects do girls typically choose at A Level?
Sociology, English, languages
How does subject choice differ at university?
Continues gendered split
What do GIST and WISE question?
Effectiveness of policies
What is notable about gender in vocational education?
Segregation
How many boys are childcare apprentices?
1 in 100
What shapes gender identity besides home?
Schools
What do teachers encourage boys to be?
Tough and initiative-taking
What traits are girls encouraged to develop?
Quiet and helpful
What subject choices do boys and girls prefer according to Murphy and Elwood (1998)?
Boys prefer hobby books; girls prefer stories.
Why is science seen as a male subject according to Kelly?
More male teachers; boys dominate labs.
What are ‘gender domains’?
Tasks viewed as male or female
How do early experiences shape gender domains?
Influence confidence in tasks
Example of girls’ confidence in maths tests?
Context of food/nutrition
Example of boys’ confidence in maths tests?
Context of cars
How is sport perceived in terms of gender?
Male domain
What derogatory terms did male pupils use for sporty girls according to Dewar?
Butch, lesbian
What reflects gender choices in education?
Narrow range of occupations
What does sex typing of occupations affect?
Ideas about acceptable jobs
What influences gender-specific vocational courses?
Career plans
What is a powerful influence on gender identity?
Peer pressure
How do peers influence subject choices in mixed schools?
Policing choices
What may pupils study in single sex schools?
Against gender domain
Impact of single-sex schools on subject choices?
Less stereotyped choices
Leonard’s 2006 finding for girls?
More maths and science A Levels
Leonard’s 2006 finding for boys?
More English and languages
What social factor impacts vocational course choice?
Social class
What did Fuller (2011) find about working class girls’ ambitions?
Hair and beauty or childcare
How do schools influence working class girls’ career paths?
Steer toward certain jobs
What do double standards illustrate in sexual morality?
Different standards for boys and girls
Who identified the double standard of sexual morality?
Lees (1993)
What term is used for girls who don’t conform to sexual expectations?
‘Slag’
What is the term used for labeling promiscuous girls negatively?
Negative labels
According to feminists, what does the negative labeling of girls justify?
Male power
Who identified a ‘rich vocabulary of abuse’ reinforcing gender identities?
Connell
What term did boys use for girls who appeared sexually available?
Slags
What term did boys use for girls who did not appear sexually available?
Drags
Who views name calling as a means to maintain male power?
Paechter
What do labels like ‘gay’ and ‘queer’ signify among pupils?
Policing sexual identities
What concept does Mac an Ghaill refer to involving male pupils and teachers?
Male gaze
How does the ‘male gaze’ affect girls according to Mac an Ghaill?
Seen as sexual objects
What does the ‘male gaze’ reinforce?
Heterosexual masculinity
What do boys often combine with the ‘male gaze’?
Stories of sexual conquests
What risk do boys face for not participating?
Labelled gay
Who highlighted that male teachers discipline boys differently?
Haywood and Mac an Ghaill
What behavior did male teachers reprimand boys for?
Behaving like girls
What did Askew and Ross (1988) find about male teachers?
Reinforce dominant gender ideas
How do male peer groups reinforce masculinity?
Verbal abuse
What label did boys in anti-school subcultures receive for wanting to do well?
Gay or effeminate
What did Mac an Ghaill find about ‘macho lads’ in lower school?
‘Real Englishmen’ in sixth form
How were working class boys who aspired to middle class careers viewed?
Dismissed by macho lads
What is the main focus of Archer’s study on working class girls?
Hyper-heterosexual identity
What did Ringrose (2013) study?
Working class girls’ peer groups
What is crucial to the girls’ identity according to Ringrose?
Being popular
What tension do working class girls face?
Idealised vs. sexualised identity
What is used as social control among peers?
Shaming
What is the most influential factor impacting education?
Social class
What term describes the interaction of social class, gender, and ethnicity?
Intersectionality
