1.3 Socialism

Question 1

what are the origins of socialism?

Answer 1

• as early as the English civil war the radical anti-monarchists, the Levellers, believed that God had given land to all manknd but some were greedy and had taken it for themselves
• in the early 19th century the term socialism was first applied
• it was only in the mid-19th century when the pace of industrial change sped up that socialist ideas were taken more seriously
• liberalism offered an inadequate response to the profound changes of the industrial reovlutino as in new industrial areas there was little opportunity for individual autonomy and freedom

Question 2

who was Charles Fourier?

Answer 2

• 1772-1837
• one of the earliest socialists
• utopian socialist
• advocated independent communities based on communal ownership and production involving the equal distribution of resources and a culture marked by tolerance and permissiveness

Question 3

what do socialists believe about human nature generally?

Answer 3

• optimistic view hence a ‘progressive’ ideology
• individuals are naturally cooperative, generous and altruistic who seek solidarity, fraternity and comradeship
• they recognise that mankind’s true nature has been diluted by time and circumstance therefore are more optimistic about how humans could be rather than how they are
• they thus see human anture as malleable rather than fixed at birth

Question 4

how do socialists view society, not any specific one just generally?

Answer 4

• see human nature and society as inextricably linked, any understanding of human nature requires a clear understanding of society
• they see society as an independent construct formed by impersonal forces: for Marx and Engels these forces were mainly economic (the way a society’s resources are determined and distributed have a curcial impact on the nature of society and therefore human behaviour

• individuals are not masters of their own destiny as liberals claim but rather depend on the nature of society
• society is often cited as the reason for individuals not fulfilling their potential
• but to prescribe a better society in the future the society we have today must first be diagnosed

Question 5

what do socialists prescribe as the issue within society?

Answer 5

• a major consequence of the industrial revolution was the emergence of disctinct social groupings/classes
• these classes are central to an individual’s fate, their status, priorities and prospects are shaped by the social class he or she is born into

• Marx, Engels and Anthony Crosland argued society’s classes are profoundly unequal in terms of power and influence
• this led to socialisms unique perspective on equality

Question 6

what do socialists argue needs to be done to address the issue of society?

just the theory not the practical application

Answer 6

• socialism stresses equality of outcome unlike liberalisms equality of opportunity
• the gap must therefore be narrowed between society’s poorer and richer classes, it is insufficient just to improve the condition of society’s poorest

• unless the gap is narrowed society will continue to lack fraternity, cooperation and solidarity and instead foster greed, envy, resentment and division
• regardless of someone’s intelligence or how hard they work, a society which allows inequality of outcome in one generation will be a society that produces inequality of opportunity in the next generation

Question 7

how does socialism diagnose the issue of the economy?

Answer 7

• equality of opportunity was prevented by the inequalities existing between social classes
• social class is determined by the economic system underpinning society so it is impossible for socialists to address fundamental issues of inequality without addressing the structure of the economy

• capitalism is hugely problematic, the natural condition of mankind is that of cooperation and fraternity but these attributes are threatened by private property and capitalism which instead encourage ruthless selfishness as inequality of outcome

Question 8

how does socialism prescribe a solution to the issue of the economy?

Answer 8

• by championing an economy that provides for greater workers’ control in employment and a significant redistribution of wealth and resources
• the two steps to tackle the issue are:

1. reject laissez-faire capitalism where the state is disengaged and minimalist in relation to the economy - an economy where there is low taxation and little state interference = a society where social injustice is exarcerbated
2. once laissez-faire capitalism has been rejected, demand greater economic collectivism focusing on the needs of society as a whole rather than the abilities of a few individuals

Question 9

what are five of the various forms economic collectivism can take?

Answer 9

1. progressive taxation: richer classes contribute more
2. progressive public spending: taxation is used to enhance less fortunate elements of society e.g. state benefits
3. extensive public service: taxation used on key public services e.g. education and healthcare to be accessible to all
4. extensive state regulation of capitalism: e.g. a legal minimum wage, equal pay legislation or health and safety directives
5. state/common ownership: e.g. the nationalisation of industries like coal, iron and steel in post-war Britain

Question 10

what is a quote on redistribution?

Answer 10

‘the politics of Robin Hood - taking from the rich and then giving to the poor’

Tony Benn (1925-2014)

Question 11

as well as improving equality of outcome, what are the two other benefits of economic collectivism?

Answer 11

1. allows for expressions of a more fraternal, cooperative society with greater social justice
2. collectivist policies are thought to make the economy more efficient

Question 12

what is the main difference between socialism and anarchism?

Answer 12

• core socialist values are not exclusive but are also shared by certain anarchists e.g. collectivist anarchists
• what makes socialists different is that is advocates a stronger state

Question 13

how do socialists see the role of the state and why?

Answer 13

• a strong state as otherwise it is impossible to bring about a fairer and more equal society
• some argue that the state will eventually ‘wither away’ (like Marxists and orthodox communists) in a moment Marx described as ‘the end of history’
• but all socialists agree that for the foreseeable future a strong state is necessary

Question 14

what type of state do socialists argue for?

Answer 14

• they reject the monarchical, theocratic and aristocratic state
• they instead advocate for a state where political and economic power has been redistributed and where decision making reflects principles of equality

• the state must be an extensive one as any reduction of its power will produce increased inquality
• however there is significant differences about the structure of the ideal state and how it should emerge

Question 15

what are the two main categories of socialism?

Answer 15

1. fundamentalist socialism: socialism is fundamentally at odds with private ownership and capitalism
2. revisionist socialism: socialism can be achieved alongside private property and can co-exist with capitalism

each of these categories is defined by the answer to the question:
- are the core themes of socialism compatible with private property and a capitalist economy?

Question 16

what are the five forms of fundamentalist socialism?

Answer 16

1. classical marxism
2. marxism-leninism (orthodox communism)
3. democratic socialism
4. euro-communism
5. neo-marxism

Question 17

what is classical marxism in two points?

Answer 17

Hegel’s historicism
- Hegel argued that history was a series of stages (historicism)
- in each stage there was an intellectual clash (dialectic)
- this occurs when the ruling classes official narrative of society no longer corresponds with the perceptions of the majority who then experience ‘alienation’
- this would eventually spawn a new society that would survive till the next wave of alienation

Marx and Engel’s revision - historical materialism
- Marx and Engels adjusted this to argue that the clash would always be economically driven instead of ideas (historical materialism)
- one class would be economically dominant whilst the other would be exploited for economic purposes
- capitalism was therefore historically doomed as class consciousness would be created amongst an alienated workforce

The need for revolution and rejection of reform
- it is necessary for the workforce to be rid of capitalism through violent revolution and replace it with a communist economy/society
- they rejected evolutionary or reformist socialism, seeing it as an inherent contradiction

The forging of a new state
- a new economy and new state forged by revolution is essential if socialist values are to be secured
- ‘the dictatorship of the proletariat’ would pave the way for a stateless communist society based on common ownership
- it would be so flawless that it would represent the peak of human achievement and become ‘the end of history’

Question 18

what is Marxism-Leninism (orthodox communism) in seven points?

Answer 18

Difference between Marxism and orthodox socialism
- Lenin and Luxemburg disagreed with the Marxist notion that revolution could only happen in an established, developed capitalist country
- this gave rise to the unacceptable implication that less developed countries would have to endure many more decades of oppressive rule before the salvation of socialism

Lenin and Luxemburg’s views on an early revolution
- Lenin instead argued for accelerated revolutionary socialism to ensure that socialism and ultimately communism could pre-empt the full development of capitalism
- early revolution would also prevent the masses from developing any sympathy for capitalist values (false consciouness)
- Luxemburg agreed that early revolution was necessary but was concerned that Lenin’s ideas could make revolutionary socialism irrelevant to alreadt developed countries
- but their biggest disagreement came from how the revolution should arise

Lenin’s theory of an early revolution
- Lenin stressed the importance of a revolutioary vanguard elite who would perform four vital tasks
- plot and plan the overthrow of the existing regime
- incite and organise the revolution
- prior to and during the revolution it would educate the masses into the basic virtues of socialism
- once the old regime had been toppled the vanguard could form the communist party to direct all aspects of post-revolutionary society (democratic centralistm)

Stalin and Trotsky’s interpretations of orthodox communism
- Stalin constructed one of the most brutal, totalitarian regimes ever recorded
- he collectivised agriculture and either relocated or murdered a whole peasant class in the process
- he promoted the idea of ‘socialism in one country’ and argued the Soviet Union should isolate itself from the outside world promoting a form of socialist nationalism
- Trotsky argued the opposite instead saying that any new socialist state would only entrench itself by encouraging similar revolutions in neighbouring countries

Mao’s interpretation of orthodox communism
- led the Chinese revolution of 1949 and applied similary ruthless methods in China’s new socialist state
- he argued for an ongoing ‘cultural revolution’ to destroy the old mode of thinking in the same way the old system of capitalism was being rejected
- this was a campaign of persecution against any aspect of traditional Chinese culture
- like Stalin, millions died or disappeared

Other interpretations of orthodox communism
- the theory continued to be adopted in the second half of the 20th century in countries nowhere near the level of economic development Marx saw necessary for revolution
- in the 1950s there was revolution in Cuba under Castro, North Korea and North Vietnam
- they all represented the idea od vanguard communist parties

Lenin’s failure, Luxemburg’s strength
- in all of these examples there has been little to no evidence of Marc’s ultimate objective being pursused let alone attained
- the state has not withered away but become more powerful
- this has been due to the general following of Lenin’s Marxism with a vanguard elite
- Luxemburg’s ideas are therefore considered a more compelling brand of revolutionary socialism

Question 19

what book did Lenin write?

Answer 19

What is to be done?

1902

Question 20

what book did Beatrice Webb write?

Answer 20

‘the cooperative movement in great britain’

1891

Question 21

what is early democratic socialism in three points?

Answer 21

History
- in the UK it has traditionally been associated with the Fabian society and intellectuals like the Webbs
- it has proved vital to the development of the Labour party, clause IV of Labour’s 1918 constitution was heavily influenced by Webb

The difference between Webb and Marx
- Webb rejected revolutionary change and said revolutions were chaotic, inefficient and counter-productive
- instead there should be a more planned and rational society which could evolve into a communist society

Webb’s theory
- the extension of the suffrage in the late 19th century onwards allowed a more orderly, election based progression towards a post-capitalist society
- this was known as the ‘inevitability of gradualism’
- as the majority of the population are workers they will vote for socialist parties meaning there is no need for revolution
- they could then steadily transform society via the existing parliamentary system

Question 22

what is later democratic socialism?

Answer 22

Attlee’s democratic socialism
- many say that the UK’s post-war labour government is a prime illustration of democratic socialism in action
- Attlee’s government duly implemented a series of carefully planned measures e.g. introduction of a welfare state and nationalisation of industries
- so slow, thought-out reform and an electoral mandate

Tony Benn and the incompatibility of socialism and capitalism
- Tony Benn (1925-2014) said the failure of the Wilson-Callaghan governments proved the impossibility of achieving socialism within a mainly capitalist economy
- he saw Labour’s defeat at the 1979 election as inevitable punishment for any socialist government that compromised with capitalism’s contradictions

Benn on methods to achieve evolutionary socialism
- he argued fundamentalist socialism should be pursued peacefully but if this was to be done by a Labour government then a number of adjustements were needed:
1. the restoration of parliamentary sovereignty: through the withdrawal from the EEC (old EU) which was a capitalist club
2. parliamentary reform: to allow easier passage for socialist reforms e.g. remove house of lords
3. stronger resisteance by socialist governments to pro-capitalist vested interests
4. the internal restructuring of a governing, socialist party to ensure socialist prime ministers stay true to socialist principles

Question 23

what is euro-communism in three points?

Answer 23

What is euro-communism
- mainly the belief that capitalism could be gradually decommissioned through parliamentary methods and evolutionary socialism
- by the 1970s many communist parties were keen to distance themselves from the excesses of the Soviet Union
- therefore the French Communist Party (PCF) and Italian communist party (PCI) rejected the case for revolution and instead contested elections and took up seats

Gramsci’s ideas
- euro-communists were influenced by Italian socialist Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937)
- he argued capitalism could never be overthrown without mass public support which was hard to achieve as the ruling economic class had hegemony over society’s culture
- socialist change must therefore be preceded by the emergence of a counter-culture not just in the workplace but in artistic, literary and recreational life too (cultural vanguard)

Difference between Euro-communism and orthodox communism
- a counter-culture would be more persuasive if parties were legitimised by elections, this meant it was a significant departure from orthodox communism:
- existing liberal-bourgeois states could accomodate meaningful socialist change
- they rejected the inevitability of revolution seeing the effects in Russia and China
- they rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat

Question 24

what is neo-Marxism in three points?

Answer 24

neo-marxist origins
- in the 20 century neo-marxists felt a need to explain the survival of capitalism in western europe
- some of the most important contributions came from the Frankfurt schhool

the difference to euro-communism
- like Gramsci the frankfurt school embraced the idea of a cultural hegemony but instead thought it only furthered Marx’s belief in a revolution
- they argued violent revolution was necessary but were not optimistic it would occur
- the spokesman conceded that capitalism was proving more resilient and adaptable than Marx had envisaged

miliband and why evolutionary socialism doesn’t work
- in the second half of the 20th century there was a move to update Marx’s call for revolution
- Ralph Miliband argued reform could never be achieved in a gradual, parliamentary fashion
- whenever socialist governments had come to power they had been prevented from achieving their aims by forces such as the senior civil service, the judiciary, the armed forces and the security services

Question 25

what are the three types of revisionist socialism?

Answer 25

1. classical revisionism
2. social democracy
3. the third way

Question 26

what is classical revisionism in three points?

Answer 26

why Marx was wrong
- earliest forms of revisionism came from German socialist Bernstein
- he noted that at the end of the 19th century the condition of the working class was steadily improving under capitalism
- there was little evidence that history was unfolding in the way Marx had prescribed

Bernstein’s approach
- Berstein argued that if overseen by socialist governments, capitalist economies could provide an even greater improvement to workers conditions and contain capitalisms worst features
- the widening of the franchise meaning a working class majority amongst voters meant socialist governments were increasingly likely
- they could then improve conditions gradually, stopping both the inqualities of a capitalist society and the need for a revolution

relationship to the early democratic socialists
- Bernstein endorsed many of the ideas of early democratic socialists like the Fabians
- what made him different was he thought private property could co-exist with the struggle for socialism

Question 27

what is social democracy in three points?

Answer 27

origins of social democracy
- social democracy was originally hostile to capitalism and believed in revolution
- by the mid 20th century it became the most common form of revisionist socialism
- this was because West Germany’s Social Democratic Party (SDP) decided to renounce its remaining links to Marxism by embracing both modern capitalism and the post-war West German state
- they were influenced by the work of Anthony Crosland

Crosland’s revision
- Crosland argued reformed capitalism prescribed by Keynes (where the state worked to manage market forces) had guaranteed full employment and steady economic growth
- because of Keynesian economics capitalism could be relied upon to finance a fairer society
- he further argued that socialism was not just about ‘common ownership’ but also looked at other methods where greater equality could be achieved e.g. ending unequal forms of secondary education created by 11+ examinations

differences between British social democrats
- differences were mostly over European integration
- German SDP’s spoke of a federal Europe
- Crosland and other labour politicians warned that the application of Keynesian economics required national governments to retain autonomy

Question 28

what is the third way in three points?

Answer 28

its history
- associated with the UK governments of Blair and Brown and Germany SDP politicians like Schroder
- emerged in the 1990s when the case for fundamentalist socialism had seemingly disappeared (Soviet Union had collapsed and even surviving communist states like China were allowing forms of private enterprise)
- the globalisation of capitalism had seemingly rendered much of Keynesian economics redundant
- there was the apparent failure of nationalised industries in the UK and the extensive privatisation of the 1980s made support for a mixed economy seem dated

Giddens’ aims
- credited as the main author of third wave revisionism and socialism
- he wanted to ‘triangulate’ social democracy’s wish for more equality with a capitalist economy that was now less Keynesian and more neo-liberal
- he also wanted to reconcile the task of socialist parties seeking office with the increasingly suburban and individualistic electorate

his solution
- instead of denouncing a free market he encouraged modern leftists to embrace further privatisation and deregulation
- this was the modern way to boost economic growth and government tax revenues and therefore government spending in the name of equality
- the most controversial aspect was that greater equality of opportunity probably required more not less inequality of outcome
- this was because high economic growth causes inequality
- slower growth causes more equality
- slower growth = smaller tax yields, less public spending etc.

Question 29

how is the third way and new labour linked?

Answer 29

how labour adopted the third way
- between 1994-5 Blair accepted Crosland’s case for the third way who then persuaded the labour party to reject its clause IV commitment to common ownership
- one of new labour’s architects, Peter Mandelson, said that ‘we are intensely relaxed about people getting filthy, stinking rich just so long as they pay their taxes’
- to critics of the third way e.g. Tony Benn, this is basically paternalistic conservatism

the economic effect of the third way on new labour
- under new labour government’s the tax burden rose far more than it would have done under average conservative governments
- this allowed them to finance a rise in public spending
- 39% of gross domestic product in 1997 to 47% in 2010
- new labour’s deregulation of banks and financial services and steep increases in public spending was a robust example of Crosland’s triangulation

other effects of the third way on new labour
- the third way also placed much more emphasis on cultural and political equality as society in the 90s was much more cosmopolitan and diverse than the 50s
- therefore Blair’s government passed measures to promote greater racial, gender and sexual equality
- they also brought in measures designed to redistribute political influence e.g. devolved governments and the HRA

Question 30

who are your five main thinkers for socialism?

Answer 30

1. Marx (1818-83) and Engels (1820-95): fundamentalist, revolutionary socialists
2. Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919): fundamentalist, revolutionary socialist
3. Beatrice Webb (1858-1943): fundamentalist, evolutionary socialist
4. Anthony Crosland (1918-77): revisionist, evolutionary socialist
5. Anthony Giddens (1938-): revisionist, evolutionary socialist

Question 31

overview of Rosa Luxemburg?

Answer 31

• wrote ‘reform or revolution?’ (1900)
• agreed evolutionary socialism was impossible but denied that for revolution to occur capitalism has to reached an advanced stage of development
• rejected Lenin’s claim that revolution could only occur through the planning and leadership of a vanguard elite
• rather mass strike action would occur igniting a much wider revolutionary movement
• also rejected the Marxist-Leninist idea that revolution would lead to the dictatorship of the proleteriat
• rather once revolution has occurred there will be the immediate construction of a new democracy underpinned by common ownership, open debate and elections
• upheld Marx’s internationalism

• she formed the German Communist Party (KPD) after the war
• this appalled conventional Marxists and Leninists who said it was a betrayal of Marx’s evolutionary socialism but Luxemburg claimed having a foothold in the existing political system made it easier to convey the case to proleteriat voters

Question 32

what was the Fabian society

Answer 32

an organisation committed to evolutionary socialism through reforms made at Westminster

Question 33

who was Beatrice Webb

Answer 33

her socialism was defined by four principles:
1. capitalism was the principle cause of ‘crippling poverty and demeaning inequality’
2. neither paternalism nor philanthropy were sustainable solutions
3. inequality and poverty was most likely to be eliminated through vigorous trade unionism and extensive state intervention
4. effective reform tends to be gradual rather than revolutionary

• along with her husband she became active in the Fabian society
• she was instrumental in their decision to align with the emerging Labour party
• she was involved in drafting clause IV of Labour’s 1918 constitution
• from 1905-1909 she served on a royal commission that examined the state’s aproach to poverty - the minority report
• it argued that the state should guarantee ‘sufficient nourishment and training when young, a living wage when able-bodied, treatment when sick and modest but secure livelihood when disabled or aged
• this anticipated the Beveridge Report of 1942, implemented by Labour after 1945

Question 34

who was Anthony Crosland?

Answer 34

• a senior labour party politican who served as cabinet minister during the labour governments of the 1960s and 70s
• wrote ‘the future of socialism’ (1956)
• he argued common ownership had gone far enough saying it had never been the aim of socialism, only a means to achieve it
• the true objective instead was equality which could be achieved within a capitalist economy
• Keynes had changed capitalist societies forever, advanced societies could now enjoy permanent economic growth and full employment and therefore a steady expansion of the welfare state

• owing to economic change society was less polarised between employers and employees and ‘infinitely more complex than Marx could have ever imagined’ with new classes
• socialism thus required a mixed economy comprising of private ownership alongside key services a small number of industries owned by the state
• the future task of socialist governments was not more public ownership but more public spending
• he also focused on other issues affecting inequality in society, notably education
• he argued for comprehensive education to end the segregation of pupils at 11 and create new schools catering for all abilities to break down class divisions more effectively than any extension of public ownership
• he pursued the idea whilst secretary of state for education between 1965-7 making it a norm by the time of his death