1.1 Liberalism Flashcards
what are the main strands of liberalism?
- early classical liberalism
- later classical liberalism
- modern liberalism
what was the enlightenment?
- an intellectual movement in the mid-17th century
- a belief in reason over faith
- each individual is someone with free will, the best judge of their own interests and their life should be shaped by their own actions and decisions
- Locke began to question the relationship between individuals and governments, challenging medieval attitudes
- humans should create by themselves and for themselves a political system based upon reason
what is mechanistic theory
- linked to the theories of John Locke
- argues mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankinds needs
- against the divine right of kings
what is a liberals view of human nature?
- very optimistic
- human nature has a huge capacity to bring about progress as individuals are guided principally by reason or rationalism
- human ‘problems’ are just challenges awaiting reasoned solutions
- they assume rationality is a universal feature of human nature and so reasoned discussion usually leads to consensus
- egotistical individualsim: human being are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests and pursuit of their own happiness
- mankind’s innate rationality and virtue stop this leading to destructive selfishness and competition
- individuals are therefore both egotistical and reasonable
- the natural condition of human nature is one of self-aware individuals living in peace, harmony and mutual understanding
what is the liberal view on society?
- Locke argued for a natural society with natural laws thus natural rights all of which preceded the state
- life before the state was therefore potentially pleasant, civilised and long
- John Stuart Mill argued the main purpose of society was to facilitate individualism, with the individual seeking freedom
- Mill argued this was freedom from any dependency on others and the freedom to live one’s life in a way that maximises self-reliance and self-fulfilment
- any society which seeks to deny individualism is dysfunctional
- the right to property is regarded by liberals as particularly important
- it is the tangible expression of the individual within society and how individuals develop their potential
what is the liberal view on the economy?
- property is a natural right so the liberal economy puts private property at the heart of all economic arrangements
- it is inevitable that liberals should support capitalism
- Adam Smith’s work meant liberalism has been strongly associated with private enterprise and private ownership (a key difference between liberalism and socialism)
- Adam Smith argued that if obstacles to free trade were swept away the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces would guide traders towards success, resulting wealth would ‘trickle down’ to everyon and the ‘wealth of nations’ would be promoted globally
- Smith clearly reflected the optimistic tone of liberalism core values
- perhaps naive about the efficacy of market forces?
what are the objectives of a liberal view view on the state?
rejection of the traditional state
- against any type of state from pre-enlightenment
- there shouldn’t just be one individual to rule, against religion
government by consent
- the state is legitimate
promotion of natural rights/individualism
promotion of tolerance
meritocracy
equality of opportunity
justice
what are the origins of the liberal state?
- human nature is good
- but in the state of nature there will still be some issues between competing individuals
- therefore having a state to regulate and minimally control to a degree is good
- in the same way a game of sport can be played without a referee but it will most likely lead to disagreements betwen players and some issues
what are the objectives of the liberal state?
- rejection of the traditional state: monarchical and absolutist
- government by consent: the state is only legitimate if those under it have volunteered to be under its jurisdiction (social contract)
- promotion of natural rights: the state should make rights more easily accessed than in the state of nature
- promotion of tolerance: Mill’s harm principle to individuals and communities
- meritocracy: political power should be exercised only by those who show themselves worthy of it, rejected aristocracy
- equality of opportunity: all individuals are born equal, have equal natural rights and are of equal value - foundational equality
- justice: the state should treat all equals fairly
what are the methods used to achieve a liberal state?
- consitutional government: social contract should be cemented, in contrast to arbitrary rule of monarchical states to prevent erosion of the natural rights of their citizens
- fragmented government: not just one ruler, aims to empower as many individuals as possible in the state e.g. in the US constitution with a system of checks and balances
- formal equality: idea of foundational equality - everyone must have the same legal and political rights, rule of law, laws passed are applicable to everyone
what are the four main features of early classical liberalism?
revolutionary potential:
- a government by consent was radical in the 18th century and required vigorous argument and revolutionary upheaval
- Locke’s arguments have been associated with England’s Glorious Revolution of 1688 leading to the 1689 bill of rights, inspired the American revolt for independence, the subsequent constitution in 1787 and the French revolution in 1789
- Mary Wollstonecraft particularly applied the idea to women
negative liberty:
- defined the vague term ‘liberty’ as negative liberty: freedom as the absence of restraint
- this had consequences for the size of the state and economic ideas
minimal state:
- the limited state should co-exist with the minal state
- in the words of Jefferson ‘the government that is best is that which governs least, when government grows our liberty withers’
- a state with lots of checks and balances would mean bold state action was difficult and thus infrequent
laissez-faire capitalism:
- how should the state responds to the emergence of capitalism in the 18th century
- Adam Smith’s ‘wealth of nations’ - most important expressions of classical liberalism
- the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces could enrich societies as the wealth acquired by individuals would ‘trickle down’ to the rest of the population if the state took a ‘laissez-faire’ (let it happen) approach
- he advocated the end of tariffs and duties and the spread of free trade between nation states
who are the four key thinkers of later classical liberalism?
Jeremy Bentham:
- utilitarianism as an alternative to natural rights theory
- greatest happiness for the greatest number to inform legislation and government policy
- this provided liberalism with one of its earlies justifications for democracy
Samuel Smiles:
- even in the more challenging age of industrialisation self-reliance is better then state help because it produces more hardy and developed people
Herbert Spencer:
- social Darwinism
- surivival of the fittest in society
- get rid of the weak and feeble in society who may need the state’s help so a society of rational self-reliance is created
JS Mill:
- took Locke’s case for a representative government into a representative democracy
- a representative democracy to avoid tyranny of the majority such as through direct democracy
- everyone should have the right to vote but only if they first had an education
- universal education before universal suffrage
- issues about how to achieve education as it cannot be done by the state
what are the four features of modern liberalism?
positive liberty/social justice:
- late 19th century, it was argued that complex modern economics and society stopped individuals achieving self-determination
- social and legal justice was now required for individuals to fulfil their potential
- positive liberty was now to replace negative liberty, helping others to help themselves
an enlarged and enabling state:
- positive liberty could only be achieved through a larger state
- John Rawls argued for a substantial expansion of the state in the name of individual liberty
- he resisted criticism that he was blurring the lines between socialism and liberalism as there was the focus on equality of opportunity not equality of outcome
consitutional reform/liberal democracy:
- to extend the state modern liberliams has to reform/improve it
- in the UK demands for reform have been seen through a codified constitution, devolution, electoral reform to PR and a reformed house of Lords
- most prominently it has been seen through completing the link between core liberal values and universal adult suffrage (liberal prime ministers were often in charge during the reform acts
- liberals are generally enthusiastic of supra-national bodies and saw the UK’s departure from the EU as evidence of the dangers of direct democracy and the tyranny of the majority
social liberalism:
- update the stress on tolerance
- move general tolerance to using the state to promote toleration e.g. through positive discrimination/affirmative action
- associated with Betty Friedan who argued that it is still liberal, using Mill’s harm principle, as it prevents people from having their freedoms harmed by others
what is neo-liberalism?
rejection of conservatism:
- claims to not be conservative due to its positive view of human nature, favouring radical change over conservative stability and opposed some of the social policies associated with conservatism
- Hayek, Popper, Friedman and places like the Adam Smith institute would have supported these ideas
how it is distinctive:
- tries to re-apply the ideas of classical liberals like Adam Smith and Thomas Jefferson to modern society
- critiques modern liberalism as a sell out of both conservatism and socialism
its ideas:
- fuelled by the crises of the 1970s seen in the failure of Keynesisan economics and welfare spending
- argued for negative freedom and a minimal state
- called for politicians to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state
- demanded a reduction in public spending, privatising public services and less state regulation of the economy alloing lower rates of taxation and stopping ‘dependency culture’
similarities to conservatism:
- whilst they did claim to not be conservative neo-liberals often are called such
- their views are reactionary rather than progressive, seeking to restore the economics of the 19th century rather than new ideas for the future
- they also played a key role in the development of the new right conservatism e.g. Rand, Nozick, Thatcher and Reagan
what are liberals views on human nature?
- they all believe humans are rational , intelligent, keen to prioritise their individual happiness and respectful of others wishes to do the same
- earl classical liberals argue individuals are innately blessed with such qualities
- Modern liberals argue such qualities are potential features of human nature to be developed by liberal authorities
