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BIO115 > 116 Exam 3 > Flashcards

116 Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Central Nervous System

A

brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

cluster of nerve cell bodies in CNS

A

nucleus

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3
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

all neurons not a part of the brain and spinal cord

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4
Q

cluster of nerve cell bodies in PNS

A

ganglion

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5
Q

Neurons

A

cells that send and receive chemical and electrical signals to and from other neurons throughout the body
present in all animals (except sponges)
conduct nerve impulses
structural and functional unit of nervous system

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6
Q

soma

A

cell body, contains nucleus and organelles

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7
Q

dendrites

A

extension of plasma membrane

receive signals

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8
Q

axons

A

extension of plasma membrane
send signals
hillock located near cell body

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9
Q

synaptic terminal

A

end of axon, contains neurotransmitters

conducts signal across synapse

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10
Q

glia

A

support cells in NS

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11
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

form myelin sheath in CNS

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12
Q

Schwann cells

A

form myelin sheath in PNS

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13
Q

astrocytes

A

stem cell to produce more glial cells and neurons

provide metabolic support

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14
Q

microglia

A

remove cellular debris

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15
Q

radial glia

A

form tracks for neuronal migration in embryos

stem cell to produce more glial cells and neurons

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16
Q

sensory neuron

A

detects info from outside world or internal body conditions

aferent (to CNS)

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17
Q

motor neuron

A

sends signals to elicit response, move muscles, etc.

eferent (away from CNS)

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18
Q

inter neuron

A

connects neurons to each other

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19
Q

reflex arc

A

simplest pathway for signal, sensory neuron straight to motor neuron without interpretation by brain (only spinal cord)

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20
Q

Membrane potential

A

difference in charge inside and outside cell
separated by cell membrane
caused by differing ion concentrations
polarized

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21
Q

resting membrane potential

A

when neurons not sending signals

  • 70 mv inside the cell
  • ions on inside arrayed to + ions on outside
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22
Q

3 factors contributing to resting potential

A
  1. Na+/K+ ATPase
    3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ in, makes cell more -
  2. Ion-specific channels (passive movement)
    K+ channels open more frequently at resting potential
    Membrane more permeable to K+
  3. Negatively charged molecules (proteins, DNA) more abundant inside cell
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23
Q

Electrochemical gradient

A

combined effect of electrical and chemical gradients

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24
Q

chemical gradient

A

charges are equal but more of one ion (K+) on one side than the other

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25
Q

electrical gradient

A

same ion (K+) concentration on both sides, but one side more charged than the other

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26
Q

What causes changes in membrane potential?

A

Changes in level of polarization

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27
Q

Depolarization

A

cell membrane becomes less negative relative to surroundings

gated channels open to allow Na+ into cell and make membrane potential more positive

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28
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

cell membrane becomes more -

K+ moves out of cell

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29
Q

What types of cells are excitable?

A

Muscle and nerve cells but all cells have a membrane potential

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30
Q

excitable

A

have capability to generate electrical signals

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31
Q

voltage-gated

A

open/close in response to voltage changes

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32
Q

ligand-gated

A

open/close in response to chemicals/ligands

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33
Q

Graded Potentials

A

depolarization or hyperpolarization
varies depending on strength of stimulus
occur locally, spread a short distance, then die out

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34
Q

Graded hyperpolarization steps

A

gated K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out, membrane potential becomes more -

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35
Q

Graded depolarization steps

A

gated Na+ channels open, Na+ diffuses in, membrane potential becomes more +

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36
Q

threshold potential

A

-55 mv

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37
Q

Action Potential

A

all or nothing depolarization

when graded potentials sum to -55 mv AP triggered

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38
Q

steps in action potential

A
  1. resting state: -70 mv, K+ closed and Na+ AG closed but not IG
  2. Threshold: AG of Na+ opens, Na+ flows in while K+ stays in
  3. Depolarization: cell becomes more + as Na+ flows in
  4. Repolarization: IG for Na+ closes channel at +35 mv, K+ channel opens and it flows out making MP - again
  5. Undershoot: out flow of K+ makes MP too negative, both AG and IG for Na+ closed for refractory period
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39
Q

Refractory Period

A

while IG of Na+ closed, neuron cannot respond to another stimulus
places limit on frequency of action potentials and prevents AP moving backwards

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40
Q

Why do K+ channels open slower than Na+?

A

prevents their effects negating each other

key evolutionary event

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41
Q

Conduction of signals

A

Na+ enters and reaches threshold potential at axon hillock
Triggers opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels there
depolarizes area near axon terminus
sequential opening of Na+ channels conducts wave of depolarization from axon hillock to terminus
Gated Na+ channels prevent backward movement

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42
Q

What factors affect signal speed?

A 
axon diameter (broader is faster since less resistance)
myelinated faster than unmyelinated
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43
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

gaps between myelin sheaths

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44
Q

saltatory conduction

A

action potential jumps (flows thru cytosol) to next node of ranvier

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45
Q

Synapses

A

junction where nerve terminal meets a neuron, muscle, or gland

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46
Q

electrical synapse

A

electric charge flows freely from one cell to another

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47
Q

chemical synapse process

A
  1. presynaptic cell contains vesicles of neurotransmitter
  2. exocytosis releases neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
  3. diffuse across cleft, bind to channels/receptors in postsynaptic cell
48
Q

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory Synaptic Potential

A 
EPSP = brings cell closer to TP, depolarization
IPSP = brings cell further from TP, hyperpolarization
49
Q

What can cause a synaptic signal to end?

A

neurotransmitter broken down by enzymes or transmitted back to presynaptic cell for reuse

50
Q

Temporal summation

A

impulses are one after the other, sum to TP

51
Q

spatial summation

A

impulses occur at the same location/time

52
Q

6 classes of neurotransmitters

A 
acetylcholine
biogenic amines
amino acids
neuropeptides
gaseous neurotransmitters
dopamine
53
Q

acetylcholine

A

one of most widespread NT
released at neuromuscular junctions
excitatory in brain and skeletal muscles
inhibitory in cardiac muscles

54
Q

biogenic amines

A

abnormally high or levels associated with various diseases (Parkinson’s, depression, schizophrenia)

55
Q

amino acids

A

glutamate is most widespread excitatory NT

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) is most widespread inhibitory NT

56
Q

neuropeptides

A

AKA neuromodulators
can alter response of postsynaptic neuron to other NTs
opiate peptides, oxytocin, enkaphalin

57
Q

gaseous neurotransmitters

A

not contained in vesicles, produced locally as needed
short acting, influence other cells by diffusion
ED drugs increase/mimic action of NO on smooth muscle

58
Q

dopamine

A

generally excitatory, inhibitory at some sites
widespread in brain and affects sleep, mood, learning
secreted by both CNS and PNS
too little = Parkinson’s, too much = schizophrenia

59
Q

How can the same signal cause a different response in one cell than another?

A

Different signal transduction pathways

60
Q

Hemolymph

A

blood(vessel fluid) and interstitial fluid mixed in one large compartment, OPEN circulatory system
nutrients/waste exchanged thru diffusion between body cells and hemolymph
less O2 needed so energetically inexpensive
circulation becomes more efficient as activity increases
no selective delivery to different tissues

61
Q

closed circulatory systems

A

physical separation between blood and interstitial fluid
larger, more active animals require higher blood pressure to get blood to all cells
earthworms, cephalopods, vertebrates

62
Q

blood

A

fluid connective tissue
cells, cell fragments, dissolved nutrients, proteins, gases, etc. dissolved in water
cellular components (RBC w/ no nucleus) wear out and are constantly replaced

63
Q

Where are erythrocytes and leukocytes made?

A

pluripotent stem cells in red bone marrow

64
Q

4 Components of blood

A

plasma - water and solutes, buffer, water balance, immune cell transport
erythrocytes - RBC, use hemoglobin to transport O2
leukocytes - WBC, defend body from infection and disease
platelets/thrombocytes - formation of blood clots, fibrin precipitation

65
Q

common blood features between animals

A

blood distributed thru vessels
at least one muscular, contractile heart
transports dissolved solutes
contains disease-fighting cells/molecules
can be adjusted to meet metabolic demands
capacity to heal self when wounded (clots)

66
Q

single circulation

A

fish
single atrium collects blood, single ventricle pumps blood out
arteries > gills to exchange O2 and CO2 > other arteries to tissues

67
Q

3 - chambered heart

A

amphibians rely on lungs and highly permeable skin to exchange gases
heart pumps blood to pulmocutaneous (skin and lungs) or systemic circulation
2 atria collect blood, one ventricle pumps it out
internal structure keeps O2 and non-O2 blood mostly separate but mixing does occur
low/medium pressure used to minimize pressure in lung tissue

68
Q

double circulation

A

crocodiles, birds, mammals
2 distinct circuits for systemic and pulmonary circulation
2 atria and 2 ventricles
different pressures in different circuits

69
Q

myogenic hearts

A

electrically excitable, generate own action potential

nervous input can increase or decrease rate

70
Q

neurogenic heart

A

require regular electrical impulses from nervous system

71
Q

cardiac cycle

A

events that produce a single heartbeat

frequency is heart rate/pulse

72
Q

diastole

A

atria contract, ventricles fill, lowest BP

73
Q

systole

A

ventricles contract, blood pushed out of heart, highest BP

74
Q

cardiac output

A

volume of blood (L) pumped into systemic circulation per minute
depends on heart size and pulse
stroke volume/pulse(min)

75
Q

sinoatrial node

A

collection of modified cardiac cells that spontaneously and rhythmically produce their own action potentials
act as pacemaker
affected by exercise, nerves, hormones, body temp

76
Q

atrioventricular node

A

conducts impulse from sinoatrial nodes to ventricles causing them to contract

77
Q

arteries

A

take blood away from heart

layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue around smooth endothelium

78
Q

arterioles

A

smaller arteries, dilate or constrict to control blood flow to tissues

79
Q

capillaries

A

site of gas and nutrient/waste exchange
single-celled layer of epithelium on basement membrane
continuous(smooth) or fenestrated (holes)

80
Q

capillary exchange process

A

blood enters under high BP on arteriole end
fluid forced out by pressure but not RBC or large proteins
most of fluid that leaves recaptured at venule end using low pressure and osmotic force of large proteins

81
Q

venules

A

small, thin extensions of capillaries

82
Q

lymphatic system

A

collects fluid that is not recaptured by capillaries and returns it to blood

83
Q

veins

A

conduct blood back to heart
thinner and less muscular than arteries
lower BP

84
Q

What helps veins get blood back to the heart?

A

smooth muscle contractions help propel blood

valves in veins squeezed by skeletal muscles

85
Q

Resistance

A

tendency of blood vessels to slow down blood flow
based on vessel radius and length and blood viscosity
changing R is major mechanism in controlling blood flow to a region

86
Q

What is the most important factor in blood resistance?

A

vessel radius

87
Q

stroke volume

A

amount of blood heart ejects at each beat

88
Q

arterial blood pressure

A

tells how hard heart is working and arteriole dilation level

Cardiac Output * Total Peripheral Resistance

89
Q

epinephrine

A

hormone from adrenal gland that increases cardiac output by increasing stroke volume and/or pulse

90
Q

baroreceptors

A

stretch receptors located in certain arteries
detect blood pressure and send it to brain
causes changes in vasodilation and constriction

91
Q

cardiovascular disease

A

conditions affecting heart and blood vessels

most deaths in the US each year

92
Q

systemic hypertension

A

high blood pressure
caused by aging, smoking, obesity, etc.
treated with diet, exercise, drugs

93
Q

pulmonary hypertension

A

results in congestive heart failure

blood backs up into lungs, pressure rises, forces fluid into lungs

94
Q

atherosclerosis

A

systemic hypertension causes damage leading to plaque buildup on interior artery walls, can block lumen

95
Q

plaque

A

cholesterol buildup

96
Q

myocardial infarction

A

heart attack
coronary blood vessels blocked by plaque
regions of cardiac muscle die when blood supply cut off, don’t regenerate

97
Q

cardiac angiography

A

can detect narrowing of coronary vessels

98
Q

balloon angioplasty

A

can widen lumen of narrowed vessels

99
Q

coronary bypass

A

takes blood vessel from another part of body and uses it to replace blocked coronary artery

100
Q

Gas solubility and temperature/pressure

A

as temp increases, gas solubility decreases

as pressure increases, gas solubility increases

101
Q

nose and mouth

A

air is warmed and humidified

102
Q

pharynx

A

food and air mix

103
Q

larynx

A

vocal cords

104
Q

trachea

A

leads from pharynx to bronchi

105
Q

glottis

A

opening to trachea, protected by epiglottis

106
Q

bronchioles

A

surrounded by circular muscle to dilate/constrict passage

107
Q

alveoli

A

site of gas exchange
one cell thick
coated with extracellular fluid for gases to dissolve
surfactant prevents them from collapsing

108
Q

pleural sac

A

encases each lung

2 layers with fluid in between that lubricates and adheres them together

109
Q

Negative Pressure Ventilation

A

mammals, birds, reptiles

lung volume expands creating negative pressure and drawing air in

110
Q

tidal ventilation

A

mammals
inhalation - intercostoals contract to bring chest wall out, diaphragm contracts and drops down to increase V and bring air in
exhalation - intercostals and diaphragm relax, V decreases and air is pushed out

111
Q

chemoreceptors

A

in aorta

monitor pH and CO2 and O2 levels

112
Q

Breathing rate increases if:

A

O2 levels fall

pH drops due to increased acid production from anaerobic metabolism or CO2 from aerobic production

113
Q

How is CO2 carried in the blood?

A

66% as HCO3- made reversibly by carbonic anhydrase in RBC
25% bound in hemoglobin
7-10% dissolved in plasma and RBC

114
Q

Respiratory pigments

A

proteins with one or more metal ions with high affinity for O2, bind non-covalently and reversibly

115
Q

hemoglobin

A

respiratory pigment with iron as metal
4 protein subunits, each with heme unit
binds 4 O2 per molecule

116
Q

emphysema

A

extensive lung damage
reduces elastic quality of lungs, total SA of alveoli
reduced lung function and blood O2 levels

117
Q

Dan

A

Get Danned Dolson

BIO115 (6 decks)

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