11 textbook questions Flashcards
When is walking typically mastered?
around 12 months
Longitudinal designs are more sensitive to…
developmental changes
Weaknesses of a longitudinal study:
They can take years to complete which causes participants to drop out as they lose intereset
When is temperamental individuality well established? Who found this out?
- 2 to 3 months
- Thomas and Chess
3 basic styles of temperament identified by Thomas and Chess:
- 40% of youngsters were easy children who tended to be happy, sleep regularly and eat
- 15% were slow to warm up, children tended to be less cheery, sleeping less regularly, slower in adapting to change
- 10% are difficult children who tended to be glum, erratic in sleeping and eating and resistant to change
When do infants show a strong preference for their mum?
around 6 - 8 months
Who believes infants are biologically programmed to emit behaviour triggering affectionate and protective responses from adults?
Bowlby
What does Mary Salter Ainsworth suggest in regards to attachment?
Attachment emerges out of a complex interplay between infant and mother
What method did Mary Salter use?
Strange situation procedure
Ainsworth found that infant mother attachments follow what three patterns?
Secure attachment – playing and exploring with the comfortability with their mother present and visibly upset when mother leaves and calm when she returns
Anxious-ambivalent attachment – children appear anxious when their mother is near and excessively protest when she leaves, but not particularly comforted when she returns
Avoidant attachment – children seek little contact with their mother and not often distressed when she leaves
When does separation anxiety emerge?
6 to 8 months and peaks at about 14-18 months
Who put together the first major theory of personality development?
Sigmund Freud (1900) - He claimed that the basic foundation of an individual’s personality is firmly laid down by age five
What did Freud theorize?
that personality continues to evolve over the entire life span
What theory did Erik Erikson develop?
Stage theory of development
Stage theories assume:
- Individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order as each stage build upon another
- Progress through these stages is strongly related to age
- Development is marked by major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behaviour
Erikson’s stage theory
- Trust vs. mistrust
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- Initiative vs. guilt
- Industry vs. inferiority
Trust vs. mistrust
- The first year of life
- if an infant’s biological needs are adequately met by its caregivers, the child should develop an optimistic, trusting attitude towards the world and the opposite could lead to a more distrusting, pessimistic personality
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- Unfolds during the second and third years of life
- The child must begin to take some personal responsibility for feeding, dressing, and bathing and will hopefully gain a sense of self-sufficiency if not, and the parents are never satisfied with the child’s efforts, then the child may develop a sense of personal shame and self-doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
- Lasts roughly from ages three to six
- Children experiment with their parents’ rules possibly causing overcontrolling parents to instill feelings of guilt causing self-esteem to suffer
- Parents should support their children’s emerging independence while maintaining appropriate control
Piaget’s stage theory:
- He proposed that youngsters progress through 4 major stages of cognitive development,
Sensorimotor period, pre-operational period, concrete operational period, formal operational period
Industry vs. inferiority
- Age six to puberty
- The challenge to function socially is extended beyond the family to a broader social realm
Sensorimotor period
- (birth to age 2)
- Coordination of sensory input and motor responses
Preoperational period
- (ages 2-7)
- Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism
Concrete operational
- period (7-11)
- Mental operations applied to concrete events, mastering conservation
- Children develop a variety of new problem-solving capacities
Formal operational
- period (11-onward)
- Mental operations, applied to less abstract ideas; logical, systemic thinking
Evaluating Piaget’s theory:
- Piaget has somewhat underestimated young children’s cognitive development
- Piaget underestimated the influence of cultural factors on cognitive development
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory:
- children acquire most of their culture’s cognitive skills and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more experienced members of their society
- Scaffolding facilitates learning
Kohlberg’s stage theory
- focuses on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour
- Found that individuals progress through a series of three levels of moral development, yielding a total of 6 stages
- Younger children think in terms of external authority at the preconventional level
- Older children and the conventional level of moral reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining social order
Punishment orientation:
right and wrong are determined by what is punished
Naïve reward orientation:
right and wrong are determined by what is rewarded
Good boy/good girl orientation:
right and wrong are determined by close others’ approval or disapproval
Authority orientation:
right and wrong are determined by society’s rules and laws which should be obeyed rigidly
Kohlberg’s stages
- Punishment orientation
- Naïve reward orientation
- Good boy/good girl orientation: approval or disapproval
- Authority orientation
- Social contract orientation
- Individual principles and conscience orientation
Social contract orientation:
right and wrong are determined by society’s rules, which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute
Individual principles and conscience orientation:
right and wrong are determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice
Adolescence
- A transitional period between childhood and adulthood
- A critical time for the development of important physical and psychological attributes
Growth of white matter suggests…
that neurons are becoming more myelinated leading to enhanced connectivity in the brain and a decrease in grey matter is thought to reflect synaptic pruning
what is the last part of the brain to fully mature?
the prefrontal cortex
What did G. Stanley Hall propose?
Adolescent years are characterized by convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil
James Marcia proposes…
the presence or absence of a sense of commitment and a sense of crisis can combine to produce four different identity statuses
Marcia’s four identity statuses:
- Identity diffusion
- Identity foreclosure
- Identity moratorium
- Identity achievement
identity diffusion
a state of rudderless apathy, with no commitment to an ideology
Identity foreclosure:
a premature commitment to visions, values and roles typically prescribed by one’s parents – associated with conformity and not new experiences
Identity moratorium:
involves delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers
Identity achievement:
involves arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities – associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation, and capacity for intimacy
- Personality tends to be quite stable over periods of…
20 to 40 years
Personality in adulthood is characterized by
both stability and change
Erikson’s view of adulthood is divided into what 3 stages?
- Early adulthood stage: intimacy versus isolation
- Middle adulthood: generativity versus self-absorption
- Late adulthood: integrity versus despair
Early adulthood stage: intimacy versus isolation
Concerned with whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others
Middle adulthood: generativity versus self-absorption
Challenge is concerned with acquiring general concern for the welfare of future generations resulting in providing unselfish guidance to younger people
Late adulthood: integrity versus despair
The challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on the mistakes of the past and on one’s imminent death
What is the average life expectancy predicted for 2031 in Canada?
81.9 for males and 86 for females
brain tissue and brain weight increases or decreases gradually in late adulthood
decreases
What can cause dementia?
Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, AIDS
Alzheimers’s accounts for how many cases of dementia?
60-80%
