1.1 Integrate a theory of human psychological functioning and development Flashcards
Integrate a theory of human psychological
functioning and development.
Psychoanalytical-Based Art Therapy: Jungian (Jung)
Art therapists using a psychoanalytical approach draw on the principles of psychodynamic theories that have the goal of uncovering the unconscious. This practice examines how past conflicts influence the present and are concerned with human thought and expression (Robb, 2012). Michael Edwards was an influential Jungian art therapist and academic from the U.K. Edwards utilized a Jungian-influenced style with emphasis on the collective unconscious and archetypes (as cited in Malchiodi, 2003). Edwards’s approach to Jungian analytic art therapy emphasizes art as an expression of the unconscious through inner sources of imagery and relies heavily on active imagination and symbolic speech in the practice (Edwards, 2001). Edwards’s approach highlights the individual’s inner sources of imagery and the “personified image” that preoccupied Jung.
Humanistic-Based Art Therapy
Humanistic-based art therapy comprises a broad group of approaches that are concerned with the “here and now,” with efforts focused on attaining self-actualization, self-realization and self-responsibility (Simon, 2005). “This practice draws on humanistic theories, such as Child- centered (Rogers, 1965); Gestalt (Perls, Hefferline & Goodman, 1969), Transactional Analysis (Berne, 1961); Existential Therapy (May, 1961); and interpersonal individual/group therapies (Laing, 1959; Sullivan, 1955; Yalom, 1975)” (as cited in Westwood, 2010, p. 19). Several art therapies that fall under the umbrella of humanistic-based art therapy will be examined individually to highlight the unique aspects of each approach.
Client-Centred (Rogers)
Client-centred therapy, a therapy approach that was developed by Carl Rogers, is an integrated multimodal therapy incorporating empathetic listening, authenticity and non- judgmental or interpretive principles (Dryden & Mytton, 1999). Carl Rogers believed self- actualization was promoted through creative expression and practised the unconditional acceptance of clients’ good and bad polarities and purported that creative expression emerged from the conditions of acceptance by the therapist but could not be forced: “From the very nature of the inner conditions of creativity, it is clear that they cannot be forced but must be permitted to emerge” (Rubin, 2012, Kindle Locations 3909-3910). Carl Rogers’s approach was extrapolated and applied to art therapy by his daughter, Natalie, who called the approach “Person-centred expressive arts therapy.” Natalie Rogers viewed “rigidity” as the antithesis of psychological health and was strongly nondirective in her approach, trusting the wisdom of her clients and encouraging them to be open to new experiences (Sommers-Flanagan, 2011).
Gestalt (Rhyne)
“The basic assumption of Gestalt therapy is that individuals can deal effectively with their life problems. The central task of the therapist is to help clients fully experience their being in the here-and-now, by becoming aware of how they prevent themselves from feeling and experiencing in the present” (Rubin, 2012, Kindle Locations 3310-3317).
A Gestalt approach to art therapy was developed by Janie Rhyne. As in Gestalt talk therapy, Rhyne encouraged clients to conduct as much of the therapy independently with a noninterpretive nonjudgmental presence. With this approach, Rhyne encouraged clients to draw their own interpretations and express their feelings using art materials, dream work, role-playing and storytelling to promote self-actualization through self-expression (Rhyne, 1973).
Phenomenological (Betensky and Carpendale)
Phenomenology was defined by Carpendale (2003):
The study of essences: the essence of perception and the essence of consciousness. It is a deeply contemplative philosophical method in which one allows oneself to perceive the many levels of meaning implicit in the description of reality so that one can distill the essence” (p. 1)
Mala Betensky, a prominent art therapist, introduced the recognition of elements as symbolic expression, through the use of line, shapes and colour and how they can be viewed from a phenomenological perspective (Rubin, 2012). “The therapist’s task is to watch the client at work, in addition to giving active guidance or participating in other ways. It is largely a silent task, but the therapist as participant-observer is far from passive” (Rubin, 2012, Kindle Locations 3086- 3088). For these therapists, the art is considered a pre-intentional record of this experience of internal stress. The role of the art therapist is to help the client “see” with intentional perception (Carpendale, 2002).
Psychoeducational-Based Art Therapy
Psychoeducation in therapy views the role of the therapist not in terms of abnormality/diagnosis/ prescription/ therapy/ cure, but, instead views the work in terms of the ambitions or goal-setting/ skill-teaching/goal achievement (Authier, 1977). In this approach, the client is viewed as a pupil rather than patient, the therapist as a teacher with the emphasis of the work being education and skill-building (Hornby, 1990). Psychoeducational based art therapy is similar to the approach described above with activities designed to aid an individual in the
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ART THERAPY INTERVENTION PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN OF DIVORCE
acquisition of a new skill or behavior being art-based. This therapeutic approach not only provides client with information about their condition or situation, it also provides facilitates the development of skills to manage what they are experiencing (Malchiodi, 2003).
Integrate knowledge of human development across
the lifespan.
Primary interactions in infancy such as with parents and caregivers form the basis of attachments and a foundation of how we relate to the world. Secure attachments work to improve children’s abilities to reach social and emotional developmental markers. Disruption in attachments may lead to impairments and the reduction of resiliency in the face of adversity. Early stages of development are well defined by Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, while Crittenden’s The Dynamic-Maturational Model (DMM) and Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial milestones span throughout one’s lifetime.
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development provides a framework for understanding how cognition, or thinking develops. … So providing ample opportunities for children to interact with the environment through all their senses allows them to gain a better understanding of the world around them.
Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought:
- Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
- Preoperational stage (from age 2 to age 7)
- Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11)
- Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood).
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial psychosexual theory and modified it into an eight-stage psychosocial theory of development.
During each of Erikson’s eight development stages, two conflicting ideas must be resolved successfully in order for a person to become a confident, contributing member of society. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.
Erikson also expanded upon Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.
Overview of the DMM
The Dynamic-Maturational Model of Attachment and Adaptation (DMM) emphasizes the dynamic interaction of the maturation of the human organism, across the life-span, with the contexts in which maturational possibilities are used to protect the self, reproduce, and protect one’s progeny.
Maturation is both neurological/mental and also physical.
Maturation involves both the increase in potential during childhood and adulthood and also the ultimate decrease in potential in old age.
Contexts include both the people and places that affect development, e.g., family, school.
Context also includes the intra-and-interpersonal challenges of different periods of the life-span, including:
Infancy: The parents mediate the effect of the context upon the infant, including risk to the infant.
Preschool: learning safe forms of self-reliance for short periods of time;
School-age: establishing symmetrical attachments with best friends while concurrently maintaining affiliative peer relationships;
Adolescence: transforming best friend attachments into romantic, reciprocal attachments with a sexual component;
Adulthood: establishing (1) symmetrical and reciprocal spousal attachments that foster both partners’ development, (2) the nurturance of children in non-reciprocal, and (3) non-symmetrical attachment relationships in which the adult is the attachment figure;
Aging: attachments in later life when the adult is becoming less physically and mentally competent and in need of protection once again.
Integrate knowledge of contextual and systemic
factors that facilitate or impair human functioning.
Systemic and contextual factors are comprised of external influences and processes which are imposed on us all by being part of the system of society. On a smaller scale, we are our own systems, as we are the result of our experiences, and this combination of experiences plays a role in how we experience new interactions. Through reactions to our behaviours, we are conditioned to conform or rebel against the punishment or reward in the societal values and judgment of others in each interaction. Behaviours may be shaped by nature or nurture, customs and cultures, familial values and a host of other factors. Therefore, when looking at an individual’s behaviours, it is important to have an awareness of the whole picture.
Protective and Vulnerability Factors
two main categories: Individual factors (characteristics and qualities of the individual child;age, gender, temperament & intelligence) and external factors (the system surrounding the child’s life; Familial, Level of communication, change in circumstance, social or economic adversity, community.)
Integrate knowledge of the psychological significance
of various kinds of human development, such as
spiritual, moral, social, emotional, cognitive, behavioural, sexual, gender, & biological development
Individual factors or personal characteristics such as race, culture, ethnicity, values, physical challenges, gender, age, and temperament play a role in the processing and outcomes for how individuals manage adversity and life. By exploring issues that face various populations in the coursework in Social and Cultural Issues in Art Therapy, we addressed issues of white privilege and explored ways to practice with sensitivity and desire to understand diverse populations. In the course Art Therapy, Spirituality, Grief and Loss we explored the meanings of spiritualty, religion and faith and what role they play in the grieving process.
In Enhancing Resilience in Children: A Proactive Approach, Alvord and Baker (2005) proposed The Alvord–Baker Social Skills Group Model, as a resiliency-based curriculum and provided the following intervention strategies for clinicians to utilize when building a therapeutic program to improve resiliency in children:
- Teach children and families problem-solving skills to identify controllable and uncontrollable circumstances and adversities.
- Encourage children to express their feelings, both positive and negative.
- Help children and families to identify strengths and positive family experiences.
- Guide parents and teachers in fostering self-esteem in children through meaningful responsibilities whereby children may gain a sense of accomplishment and mastery.
- Teach optimistic thinking and perspective taking. Help children to realistically attribute successes to themselves and not simply to environmental circumstances.
- Teach cognitive strategies such as thought stopping and changing channels. Children are taught that if their thoughts and emotions are on the “angry channel,” they can switch to the “calm channel.”
- Teach relaxation and self-control techniques.
- Teach parents that the critical factors in fostering resilience in children are warmth, limit setting, and consistency. (p. 241)
