1002 Final Review Flashcards
1
Q
What are the chambers of the heart?
A
The right and left atria in the top, and the right and left ventricles in the bottom. Each chamber has a valve that controls the direction of blood flow.
2
Q
What are the valves of the heart?
A
Tricuspid valve
Pulmonary valve
Mitral valve
Aortic valve
3
Q
Tricuspid valve
A
Located between the right atrium and right ventricle
4
Q
Pulmonary valve
A
Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
5
Q
Mitral valve
A
Located between the left atrium and left ventricle
6
Q
Aortic valve
A
Located between the left atrium and the aorta
7
Q
Major vessels of the heart?
A
Aorta, pulmonary vein, superior vena cava, and inferior vena cava.
8
Q
Aorta
A
The largest artery in the body, which carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.
9
Q
Pulmonary veins
A
Carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
10
Q
Superior vena cava
A
Carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper body to the right atrium.
11
Q
Inferior vena cava
A
Carries oxygen-poor blood from the lower body to the right atrium.
12
Q
How does blood flow through the heart normally?
A
Superior/inferior vena cava > Right atrium > Tricupsid valve > Right ventricle > Pulmonary valve > Pulmonary artery > Pulmonary vein> Left atrium > Mitral Valve > Left ventricle > Aortic valve > Body.
13
Q
Risk factors for cardiovascular disease?
A
Modifiable, teaching points: high cholesterol, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity and poor nutrition.
Nonmodifiable: age, sex, family history and race.
14
Q
Angina
A
A symptom of reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. It can feel like pressure, squeezing, tightness, or burning in the chest, and can spread to the shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, or back.
15
Q
Stable angina
A
The most common type of angina, where pain occurs in a pattern and is usually triggered by physical exertion or stress. Pain typically lasts a few minutes and can be relieved by rest or medicine.
16
Q
Unstable angina
A
A more serious type of angina, where pain can be stronger or last longer than stable angina and does not follow a pattern. Unstable angina can happen without physical exertion and is a medical emergency that may require immediate medical attention.
17
Q
Triggers of angina?
A
Physical activity, Emotional stress, Cold or extreme temperatures, Eating a large meal, or Drinking alcohol.
18
Q
Medication for angina, and how do you use it?
A
Nitroglycerin. 1 tablet placed under the tongue or between the cheek and gum at the first sign of an angina attack. 1 tablet may be used every 5 minutes as needed, for up to 15 minutes. Do not take more than 3 tablets in 15 minutes. Call 911 if pain doesn’t improve.
19
Q
Myocardial Infarction
A
Occurs when blood flow to the heart is blocked, starving the heart muscle of oxygen and causing it to die.
20
Q
Symptoms of MI
A
Women are more likely to have less-recognized symptoms such as nausea, indigestion, and dizziness. Women tend to attribute these types of symptoms to non-life-threatening conditions such as acid reflux, the flu, stress, and anxiety.
Men has SOB, chest pain, cramping.
21
Q
Heart Failure
A
A serious condition that occurs when the heart is unable to pump enough blood and oxygen to the body’s organs.
22
Q
Left Ventricular HF Symptoms
A
Shortness of breath, especially when lying down
Coughing, especially during exertion
Fatigue
Sudden weight gain or swelling, especially in your limbs
23
Q
Right-sided HF Symptoms
A
Fluid retention and swelling, especially in your lower body
Heart palpitations
Chest discomfort
Shortness of breath
Blood backing up in your veins
Frequent urges to urinate Loss of appetite
Nausea
Right-sided heart failure usually occurs because of left-sided failure. The left ventricle pumps less blood out to the body, which causes blood to back up into the right ventricle. This backup damages the right side of the heart, which stops pumping efficiently.
24
Q
Medications to treat HF
A
Diuretics, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers, beta blockers, and digoxin. These medications can help reduce fluid in the body, relax blood vessels, and improve heart function.
25
Cardiac diet
Low sodium (2gram/day), low caffeine and sugar, low cholesterol
26
Peripheral artery disease
A buildup of plaque in the arteries, a process called atherosclerosis. When the arteries that supply blood to the legs or arms narrow or become blocked. This reduces blood flow and can lead to pain, discomfort, or tissue death.
27
Symptoms of PAD
Pain or discomfort in the affected limb, especially during exercise, but pain resolves at rest. Other symptoms include numbness, weakness, ulcers, and cold skin.
28
Risk factors of PAD
Smoking, older age, diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, and abdominal obesity.
29
Treatment for PAD
Tobacco cessation, exercise, healthy diet, medications, or surgery.
30
Complications that come with PAD
Amputation, poor wound healing, restricted mobility, severe pain, and stroke.
31
Buerger's Disease (smoking-related)
Thromboangitis obliterates is an occlusive vascular condition in which the small- and medium-sized arteries become inflamed and thrombotic. Characterized by pain and sometimes ulceration in fingers and toes.
32
Raynaud's Disease (cold and stress-related)
Caused by intermittent arterial spasms, usually when exposed to cold or emotional stimuli.
Primary—the cause is not known, and the condition is usually mild
Secondary—when symptoms occur because of other conditions (RA, lupus)
33
Assessing edema (rating)
0: No pitting, skin bounces back immediately after being pressed
1+: A barely visible dent
2+: A light dent that goes away within 15 seconds
3+: A deeper dent that takes up to 30 seconds to go away
4+: A deep dent that takes more than 30 seconds to go away
34
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Periods of apnea while sleeping due to tongue and soft palate falling to back of throat
35
Risk factors or OSA
Nasal conditions
Older age
Obesity
Male gender
36
Tracheostomy
Surgical procedure that may be performed as part of laryngeal cancer treatment to create an opening in the windpipe (trachea) for breathing,
37
Pneumonia
Infectious, cause alveoli to fill with fluid or pus. Pneumonia can be caused by various pathogens like Streptococcus pneumoniae (most common bacteria), influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), Legionella pneumophila (Legionnaires' disease), and others depending on the type of pneumonia.
38
Risk factors of pneumonia?
Older adults, immunocompromised individuals, people with chronic lung diseases (COPD, asthma), smokers, those with recent surgery, and individuals with impaired swallowing mechanisms are at higher risk.
39
Assessment for pneumonia?
Vital signs monitoring (temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure)
Lung sounds assessment (crackles, wheezes, bronchial breath sounds)
Oxygen saturation monitoring using pulse oximetry
Chest X-ray (diagnostic tool)
Sputum culture and sensitivity (to identify the causative organism).
40
Nursing interventions for pneumonia
Administer prescribed antibiotics as directed
Provide oxygen therapy if needed
Encourage fluids to thin secretions
Elevate the head of the bed
Monitor for signs of respiratory distress
Teach cough etiquette and deep breathing exercises Monitor for potential complications like pleural effusion, sepsis, and respiratory failure.
41
Tuberculosis: Latent vs active
People with latent TB don't have symptoms and can't spread the disease, while people with active TB have symptoms and can spread the disease.
42
Atelectasis
Collapse of alveoli due to underuse or mucous plugging.
43
What causes atelectasis?
Airway obstruction
Pressure on the lung
Anesthesia
Underlying lung disease: Such as pneumonia
44
Symptoms of atelectasis?
Shortness of breath
Coughing up mucus
Wheezing
Chest pain
Low oxygen levels
Rapid, shallow breathing
45
Pneumothorax
Air in pleural space cause compression of lung. A medical condition that occurs when air leaks from the lung and fills the space between the lung and chest wall. This buildup of air puts pressure on the lung, preventing it from fully expanding when you inhale.
46
Symptoms of pneumothorax?
Sudden, sharp chest pain, especially when breathing deeply or coughing
Shortness of breath
Chest tightness
Bluish skin color
Lightheaded or near fainting
Easy fatigue
47
Traumatic pneumothorax
Caused by physical trauma to the chest, such as a broken rib or stabbing, or as a complication of a medical procedure. Symptoms usually appear during or shortly after the injury.
48
Spontaneous pneumothorax
Occurs without an apparent cause, such as a known lung disease or chest injury. Symptoms usually appear when the person is at rest.
49
Emphysema
COPD: air trapping due to alveoli destruction usually from irritants, progressive loss of lung elasticity, O2 gets in but CO2 doesn’t get out, “Pink Puffer”
50
Diet for patients with emphysema?
High-calorie, high-protein meals in small, frequent portions.
51
Chronic Bronchitis
COPD: air trapping due to excess mucous production, not much gas exchange, hypoxemic, “Blue Bloater”
52
Asthma
Airway tightening due to inflammation and mucous, comes on as “attacks” in response to exertion or irritants
53
Hypokalemia
Low potassium. Caused by excessive GI losses from gastric suctioning of vomiting and the use of
medication such as LASIX can cause hypokalemia so take supplements and eat high potassium foods.
54
Hyperkalemia
This is HIGH potassium in the body levels over 5mEq/L. Caused by renal disease, and trauma such as tissue damage from burns, but kidney disease is the main cause.
55
What is really important to remember with potassium?
Potassium plays a crucial role in cardiac function.
56
Normal potassium level?
Normal range 3.5-5 mEq/L
57
Normal calcium level?
Normal range is 9.0 to 10.5 mg/dl.
58
Hypocalcemia
low levels of calcium in the blood.
A deficiency may be caused by infusion of excess amounts of citrated blood, excessive loss through diarrhea, inadequate dietary intake, surgical removal of the parathyroid gland, pancreatic disease, or small bowel disease.
59
Symptoms of hypocalcemia?
Cramping
Weakness
Spasms
Fatigue
Parasthesia
60
Hypercalcemia
High calcium levels. It may occur when calcium stored in the bones enters the circulation; occurs with immobilization or bone cancer. drink lots of fluids to dilute, encourage weight-bearing exercises, treat underlying cause.
61
Normal sodium levels
135-145 mEq/L
62
Hyponatremia
A condition where the level of sodium in your blood is too LOW.
63
Nursing interventions for hyponatremia
Monitor and record vital signs, especially blood pressure and pulse.
Monitor intake and output if the patient is receiving diuretic medications.
Observe for abnormal fluid losses from the gastrointestinal system, kidneys, or skin.
Replace fluid loss with fluids containing sodium, not with plain water.
Weigh patients daily.
64
Hypernatremia
Greater than normal concentration of sodium in the blood. Can occur when there is a sodium excess or a water loss. Body attempts to correct the imbalance by conserving water through renal re-absorption and causes fluid to shift from the cells to the interstitial spaces, resulting in cellular dehydration.
65
pH
7.35-7.45
66
pCO2
35-45
67
HCO3
22-26
68
PaO2
80–100 mmHg
69
SaO2
90% and 100%
70
Elevated pH and low PCO2
Respiratory alkalosis
71
Low pH and elevated PCO2
Respiratory acidosis
72
Elevated pH and HCO3
Metabolic alkalosis
73
Low pH and HCO3
Metabolic acidosis
74
Causes of respiratory acidosis?
CNS depression
Pneumothorax
Hypoventilation
Bronchial obstruction
Severe pulmonary infections
Heart failure/pulmonary edema
Pulmonary embolus
75
Symptoms of respiratory acidosis?
Bradypnea
Dyspnea
Restlessness
Headache
Confusion
Lethargy
Dysrhythmias
Drowsiness
76
Treatment for respiratory acidosis?
CPAP or BiPAP
Bronchodilators or corticosteroids
Mechanical ventilation may be required in severe cases.
77
Causes of respiratory alkalosis?
Fear and pain
Anxiety
Hyperventilation
Fever
Aspirin overdose
CNS lesions
Hepatic failure
78
Symptoms of respiratory alkalosis?
Light-headedness
Confusion
Decreased concentration
Palpitations
Sweating
Dry mouth
Blurred vision
Tingling or spasms in hands/around mouth
79
Treatment for respiratory alkalosis?
Discontinuation/removal of the causative agent
Oxygen
Sedative or anxiolytic therapy
Re-breathe CO2-paper bag or O2 mask method
80
Causes of metabolic acidosis?
Diarrhea
Renal failure
Asprin OD
DKA
81
Symptoms of metabolic acidosis?
Confusion
Fatigue
Tachypnea
Headache
Tachycardia
Nausea and vomiting
82
Treatment for metabolic acidosis?
Depends on the cause and may include: Sodium bicarbonate to reduce blood acidity, IV fluids, Insulin, Nutritional approaches, and Intensive care interventions.
83
Causes of metabolic alkalosis?
LOSS OF STOMACH ACID
Excess ingestion of antacids
Excess use of Bicarbonate
Loss of acids: vomiting, NG suction, or diuretics.
84
Symptoms of metabolic alkalosis?
Muscle twitching/cramps
Dizziness
Convulsions
Weakness
85
Treatment for metabolic alkalosis?
Treating the cause and replacing the bicarbonate
86
Incubation stage of infection
The period after exposure to a pathogen is when no symptoms are noticeable, but the pathogen is multiplying within the body.
87
Prodromal stage of infection
The stage where mild, non-specific symptoms appear, signaling the onset of illness.
88
Acute phase of infection
The period where the full-blown symptoms of the disease are present represents the peak of infection.
89
Convalescent stage of infection
The stage of recovery where symptoms gradually subside, and the body returns to normal.
90
Sepsis
A life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's immune system overreacts to an infection or injury, damaging the body's tissues and organs.
91
Symptoms of sepsis
Tachycardia
Tachypnea
Confusion
Body pain
Loss of consciousness
SOB
Palor
Cynaosis
92
Treatment for sepsis?
Antibiotics
IV fluids
Oxygen
Vasopressor medication
Insulin
Ventilator
Dialysis
Surgery
93
Shock
A life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's circulatory system fails to deliver enough blood and oxygen to the body's tissues and organs.
94
Symptoms of shock?
Weakness
Tachycardia
Tachypnea
Anxiety
Increased thirst
Palor
Cyanosis
Nausea/vomiting, Restlessness
Confusion
Loss of consciousness
95
Hypovolemic Shock
When the body loses too much blood or fluids, making it difficult for the heart to pump enough blood to the body.
96
Cardiogenic Shock
When the heart is unable to pump enough blood and oxygen to the body's organs due to heart attack, heart failure, chest injuries, or blood clots in the lungs.
97
Obstructive Shock
When something prevents blood from flowing into or out of the heart, which can lead to a severe drop in blood pressure and a lack of oxygen to the body's organs.
98
Distributive Shock
When blood vessels are dilated, reducing blood pressure and blood flow to the body's organs and tissues.
99
Cell characteristics
Has a membrane
Can reproduce
Can grow
Has a metabolism
Can achieve homeostasis.
100
Epithelial tissue
These tissues are packed closely together and contain no blood vessels. They protect, absorb, and secrete.
101
Connective tissue
This tissue connects things in the body. Joints are considered connective tissues.
102
Nervous tissue
This tissue allows for rapid communication between the brain or the spinal cord and the body structures and allows control of body functions.
103
Muscle tissue
This tissue is made up of cells that contract in response to a message from the brain or spinal cord.
104
Local anesthesia
Used to numb a small area of the body, such as a tooth or a wound, while the patient is awake and alert.
105
General anesthesia
Used to make the patient unconscious and unable to move and is used for major surgeries like heart surgery or brain surgery.
106
Monitored anesthesia care/Sedation
Used for minimally invasive procedures like colonoscopies. The level of sedation can range from minimal to deep.
107
Instructions to prevent post-op complications
Teaching the patient how to properly use the IS (10 times an hour)
Teach them to examine their drainage
Early ambulation
108
Influencing Factors for Surgical Outcomes
Age, nutrition status, comorbidities, support system
109
Post-op assessment and observations
ABC
Vitals
Assess the surgical site
Pain level
110
Epidermis
The outer layer of our skin. It is made up of 4-5 layers of epithelial cells, depending on the area of the skin on the body. The outermost layer is called the stratum corneum and it's constantly shedding, the epidermis is avascular. It also produces keratin, a protein that provides protection and waterproofing.
111
Dermis
Beneath the epidermis. It is the thickest and most vascular part of our skin it contains connective tissue, hair follicles, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that are woven together with collagen and elastin fibers.
112
Subcutaneous Tissue
Located directly below the dermis and is also referred to as the subcutaneous fascia. It is composed of adipose (fat) tissue and loose connective tissue. The adipose distribution is what gives us shape and contour.
113
Function of the epidermis?
Protect, hydrate, skin tone, sensation, homeostasis
114
Dermis function?
Protection, sensation, thermo-regulation, support epidermis, sweat, hair, vitamin D production
115
SQ tissue function?
Store water and fat
Insulate
Protect organs
Pathway for nerves and vessels
116
Type 1 (HSV-1)
Cold sore- is the most common, usually associated with febrile(fever) conditions, and may transmit to any part of the body, including the perineal and genital regions, normally found at the corner of the mouth but sometimes on the lips or nose. Will cause burning pain, malaise, and fatigue.
117
Type 2 (HSV-2)
genital herpes- 1st outbreak is the most painful and can manifest anywhere on the body. But normally on a woman's cervix, labia, or vulva. And a man's penis. Can cause Headache, fatigue, myalgia, fever, and anorexia (Genital herpes affects an estimated 1 in 6 adults between the ages of 14 and 49 years)
Both types of viruses may be transmitted by direct contact with any open lesion.
118
Nursing intervention for HSV-1 and HSV-2?
Keep lesions clean and dry, use warm compresses, Wear loose, absorbent clothing, and do sitz baths when there is a flare-up.
119
Herpes Zoster(Shingles)
Caused by the same virus as chickenpox the Varicella-zoster virus and will usually occur along a peripheral nerve route. Risk factors include suppressed immunity, Aging, Infection, and Stress. Will normally cause severe pain, most commonly occurring in the thoracic region, and can last 7-28 days.
120
Nursing intervention for shingles?
Itch control measures
Pain relief measures Medicated baths that can help with pain
Warm compress
Proper nutrition
121
Cellulitis
A deep infection of the skin caused by bacteria. It usually affects the arms and legs but can develop around the eyes, mouth, anus, or stomach. While it can happen to normal skin it usually occurs after some injury.
122
Assessment for cellulitis?
Signs of infection
Recent injury
IV drug use
CBC
123
Nursing intervention for cellulitis?
Wound care
Elevate
Antibiotics
Isolation
124
Impetigo
Caused by staph and is a highly contagious inflammatory disorder, it is mainly found in children and comes on as a rash. It will start as macules (flat discolored areas) and then develop into pustulants, they will rupture and form dried exudates, which will be honey colored. Normally found on the face, hands, arms, and legs.
125
Nursing intervention for impetigo?
Assessment of lesion
Teach hygiene
Keep clean and dry
VERY contagious
126
Scabies
Very contagious, they will present as wavy brown threadlike lines on the body, normally found on the hands, arms, genitalia, and body folds. It will cause severe itching, worse at night.
127
Pediculosis
Lice
128
Basal Cell Carcinoma
Most common. Usually on head and neck. Forms in basal cells of the superficial epidermis.
129
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Forms in the squamous cells of the superficial epidermis. Common in those with fair skin and lots of UV exposure.
130
Melanoma
Deadliest skin cancer. Forms in you melanocytes.
131
Lesion assessment mnemonic
ABCDE
Asymmetrical
Border irregular
Color irregular
Diameter
Elevated
132
1st-degree burns
Will present as redness of the skin, will be painful, but not have any blisters.
133
2nd-degree burns
Happen from hot liquids and flash burns, will present with deep redness, mottled skin, be extremely painful, and will have blisters.
134
3rd-degree burns
Typically caused by fire, electricity, lighting, and prolonged exposure to hot liquid or objects. Will present as dark/leathery, dry, like a charred appearance, there will be little to no pain. This is because the nerves are damaged.
135
Factors determining a major, moderate, or minor burn?
TBSA
Age
Location of burn(s)
Cause of burn
Other comorbidities
Burn depth
Injuries sustained due to burn
136
Simple fracture
A fracture of the bone only, without damage to the surrounding tissues or breaking of the skin.
137
Compound fracture
The bone breaks through the skin.
138
Greenstick fracture
An incomplete fracture. Common in kids, the bone bends but doesn't break completely.
139
Hairline fracture
A stress fracture that often occurs in the foot or lower leg. Cracks in the bone.
140
Traverse fracture
Breaks in a straight line.
141
Spiral fracture
Result of twisting bones. Common in abuse cases.
142
Traction
Medical procedure that involves applying tension to a bone or joint to realign it and keep it still. They put pins in the bones to keep them in place. Nursing interventions will be to keep the body in proper alignment and assess pin sites as indicated.
143
RICE for trauma injuries
Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation
144
Compartment syndrome
Caused by Arterial vessel compression due to a tight cast or dressing, significant swelling, or dislocation. Irreversible muscle ischemia can occur within 6 hours.
145
5 P's of Compartment Syndrome
Pain: Pain that is out of proportion to the apparent injury and is made worse by passive stretching
Paresthesia: A feeling of numbness and tingling, or diminished sensitivity to touch
Paralysis: Weakness in movement or the inability to move an affected limb
Pallor: Pale skin tone
Pulselessness: A faint pulse
146
Fat embolism
A small fat droplet or globule that enters the bloodstream and blocks blood flow. It’s a complication due to a long bone fracture, which can be life-threatening.
147
Osteoporosis
A disorder that results in a loss of bone density and can interfere with the mechanical support/ function of the bone, leading to fractures.
Women between the ages of 55 and 65 years are identified as a high-risk group (highest in White/Asian women)
148
Osteoarthritis
The most common type of arthritis, it is non-systemic and non-inflammatory, and it causes bones and joints to degenerate. The common joints affected will be the hand, knee, hip, & cervical, lumbar vertebrae.
149
Rheumatoid Arthritis
The most serious form of arthritis, considered to be a chronic systemic autoimmune disease, can lead to severe crippling.
150
Gout
Caused by an accumulation of uric acid in the blood, affects men eight times more frequently than women, Onset usually occurs at night, excruciating pain and swelling in the affected joint.
151
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Occurs when the body doesn't have enough insulin, leading to the breakdown of fat for energy and producing ketones which build up in the blood, causing acidosis (high acidity).
152
Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS)
Characterized by extremely high blood sugar levels without significant ketone production, often accompanied by severe dehydration and altered mental status.
