1 Sparkling Wines: Standard Options

Question 1

What is the ideal climate for making “elegant, balanced, long-lees aged sparkling wines”

and give examples

Answer 1

• Cool climate
  
  • grapes just ripen (^{therefore can grow grapes in places for sparkling wine that couldn’t use for quality still wines)}
  • retain acidity
  • little fruit flavour
  • sugar accumulates slowly= low pot alcohol (9-11%)
  • Important as 2nd ferment adds extra 1-2% abv
• Greater latitudes (Champagne, England Tasmania)
• Cooling influences
  
  • Near Coast (Sonoma)
  • High altitude (Trentodoc)

Question 2

Why are cool climates better for makeing quality sparkling wine

Answer 2

• You want
  
  • low sugar (base wine 10-11% abv, 2nd ferment adds 1.2-1.5%)
  • high acid (refreshing style)
  • yet the flavours must be sufficiently ripe to avoid green and herbaceous characters (amplified by sparkling)
• In cool climates the changes to sugar and acid levels happen slowly and at the same time as changes to the grapes’ flavours

Question 3

Describe sparkling wine styles more typical in a warmer climate

Answer 3

• Ripe fruit flavours, lower acidity
• Therefore better for short aged wines with short times on lees as fruit provides only/dominant flavours
  
  • Tank method
  • (Transfer/ trad method) + short time on lees
• Often less expensive wines (Prosecco)
  
  • land cheaper
  • easier to cultivate high yields - flat, fertile plains

Question 4

What factors will influence the style of sparkling wine

Answer 4

• The ripeness of fruit - the best wines are made with just ripe fruit and fruit that is not strongly aromatic
• The ability of the fruit to retain acidity - higher quality wines are made from fruit with high acidity
• How the base wine responds to autolysis :
  
  • Chardonnay - creamy; Xarel-lo - smokey.

Question 5

Chardonnay is one of the two most commonly used grape varieties for premium sparkling wine.

What are pros and cons of it?

Answer 5

PROS:

• subtle apple/citrus aroma/flavours compliment not compete with biscuity yeast autolysis (chardonnay can become creamy)
• adds finesse and longevity to a blend
• early ripening asset in cool climate
• retains acidity/low level alcohol but not unripe
• high yields and quality in best years

CONS:

• early budding, so spring frosts
• Prone to coulure and millerandage
• More disease resistant than Pinot Noir, but susceptible to powdery mildew, grapevine yellows and botrytis bunch rot if wet before harvest

Question 6

Pros and cons of Pinot Noir

Answer 6

PROS

• early budding, early ripening (cool climate)
• adds body, structure, aroma and complex red fruit flavours to chardonnay blend

CONS

• prone to
  
  • spring frosts
  • coulure
• quality drops if yields too high
• thin-skinned and disease prone
  
  • esp downy mildew
  • powdery mildew
  • botrytis bunch rot
  • fan leaf
  • leaf roll

Question 7

Pros and Cons of Meunier

Answer 7

Pros

• Reliably produces soft fruity wine, contributes softness to the sparkling wine blend
• buds early but later than Chard & PN, less prone to frost in the Vallee de la Marne
• does well in clay soil - the other varieties would not
• ripens early - advantage which helps avoid autumn rain
• important component for non-vintage wines aged for a shorter time on lees and for early drinking (championed by Krug, however)

Cons

• particularly susceptible to Botrytis bunch rot

Question 8

Describe vineyard factors influencing sparkling wine and the main risks in growing grapes for sparkling wine.

Answer 8

• Objective: produce clean, healthy grapes with high acid, low potential alcohol, delicate flavours. These are best achieved in cool climates, with high yields.
• Grapes for SW grow at higher yields than for still wines
  • grapes need to be just ripe - low sugar to deliver 9 - 11%abv
  • with subtle fruit flavours, not concentrated
  • a larger crop is assurance - if some fruit damaged, rest may make up the volume (risk=damaged fruit)
• Training/Trellising diff per region/ climate/soil /aspect /varieties
  
  • Fungal disease (rain in growing season)
    
    • botrytis bunch rot (risk) must be avoided - the enzyme laccase released by BBR affected fruit can cause serious oxidation
  • no unripe fruit (risk) - off flavours amplified by efferveschence

Question 9

When do you harvest grapes for sparkling wine?

Answer 9

• When they are just ripe (unripe flavours get more prominent as wine matures)
• Earlier than still wines to achieve
  
  • high acid
  • low alcohol (2nd ferment adds alcohol)
  • avoids rainy Autumns in cool climates (less fungal risk)

Question 10

Machine-harvesting pros and cons

Answer 10

(depends on location, local wine laws)

• PROS
  
  • faster
  • cheaper
  • night time poss (keeps grapes cooler/fresher)
• CONS
  
  • will rupture grapes skins (Phenolic extraction and oxidation)

Question 11

Hand-harvesting pros & cons

Answer 11

(depends on location and local wine laws)

• PROS hand harvest
  
  • any growing environment/ slope etc
  • sorting at picking/post harvest
  • minimises crushing of grapes (and therefore oxidation/ pigment/ tannin extraction)
• CONS
  
  • slow
  • labour intensive (so prob expensive)

Question 12

Describe the process for making the base wine in traditional method sparkling wine production

Answer 12

Pressing

• Quick and gentle to minimise phenolic compunds in the juice (esp black varieties, least skin contact/extraction - unwanted colour/tannin)
• Whole bunch for premium (as gentle, minimise solids/ phenolics and stems create channels, less pressure needed)
• Pneumatic and basket presses (gentle)
• Press fractions: common to split juice: diff press fractions - gives blending options.

Clarification

• Juice is clarified before fermentation
• Clarification of the must - using any options available to still white wine makers eg 1) sedimentation (settling) 2) centrifugation 3) flotation 4) clarifiying agents
• If excessive tannin or colour may fine eg 1) casein 2) gelatine 3) PVVP (polyvinylpolypyrrolidone)

Fermentation

• 14-20degC- retain fruit flavours, but ensure temp not too cold for the yeast
• SS tanks to allow large volumes to be fermented with temp control
• Reliable, healthy ferment is priority in low PH and hi acid environment - choice of yeast needs to consider 1st and 2nd fermentation (see 2nd ferm)
  
  • should be neutral
  • (those that promote thiols or esthers more for Tank Method - in Trad Meth no flavours that compete with Autolytic flavours are desired
  • EC1118 commonly used in Champagne / Lalvin DV10 from Lallemand

Malolactic Conversion

• Reduce excessive acidity (avoid if acid level of fruit is low)
• To enhance texture
  
  • malo buttery flavours NOT found in sparkling ‘cos diacetyl metabolised during 2nd ferment
  • lactic acid creamier than eg tartaric acid
• During first ferment. Otherwise may happen in 2nd, which could turn wine hazy - a problem in trad method as difficult to rectify in bottle.
• If malo not desired may sterile filter wine

Adjustments

• There are many options for handling the base wine before the 2nd fermentation
  
  • some mature wine in oak, or leave on lees
  • aromas/flavour of oak/ lees are magnified in final sparkling wine
    
    • proportion of new oak maturing will be small (more seasoned/larger barrels used)
    • if fruity style - no oak maturation.

Assemblage (Blending)

• Blending is the hallmark of sparkling wine prod: wines from diff sites/varieties/vintages/wm techniques
• Blending Purpose:
  
  • Balance (eg PN body v C acidity. Warm v cool site)
  • Consistency (NV brands)
  • Style (cheap/early drink v aged concentrated)
  • Rosé (if blend red & white base wines)
  • Complexity (eg oak aged/ old and young)
  • Minimise faults
  • Volume - making volumes viable by blending diff VY / diff varieties
  • Price (Meunier cheaper/ more press wine v free run)

Finshing

• Whatever method, all base wines should be clarified (using methods for any still wine
• For traditional method wines - stabilise tartrates and proteins to avoid risk of spoilage: once it’s in bottle it’s much more dfifficult to correct faults or inbalances.

Question 13

Define press fractions and what are their benefits?

Answer 13

• A press fraction is a portion of juice extracted from the press. The more pressure applied the more phenolics (can make wine bitter/coarse, add unwanted colour) solids and PH
• Diff regions have diff max allowances of press juice v free run
• Diff fractions offer blending options
• Wines from press juice faster maturing, so useful in wines for immediate consumption

Question 14

What should be considered when choosing yeast for fermenting the base wine of Sparkling wine

Answer 14

• Reliable healthy ferment to dryness is priority in sparkling.
• Can promote flavour (eg thioles or esters > fruity > Tank style)
• Use neutral yeast if autolytic style wanted
• Common to use same yeast - first and second fermentation
• when selecting remember stressful environment of 2nd fermentation
  
  • Can start fermentation in abv 9.5 - 11%
  • low PH <3 (high acid)
  • low temp (around 16ºC/between 14-20)
  • presence of SO2
  • high pressure - builds up to 6 bar
  • poor nutrients
  • rapid autolysis - in trad method wines
  • easy flocculation (ease of riddling/allow yeast to collect in cap)
• Champagne - EC1118 commonly used / Lalvin DV10

Question 15

Why and when would you use malolactic conversion in making sparkling wine?

Answer 15

1. WHY To reduce excessive acidity
2. WHY To enhance texture
   
   • malo buttery flavours NOT found in sparkling ‘cos diacetyl metabolised during 2nd ferment
   • lactic acid creamier than eg tartaric acid

• WHEN during first ferment. Otherwise may happen in 2nd, which could turn wine hazy - a problem in trad method as difficult to rectify in bottle.
• If malo not desired may sterile filter wine

Question 16

Describe the key stages in second fermentation in the Traditional Method

Answer 16

In trad method 2nd ferment occurs in same bottle in which wine later sold. This phase called “Prise de Mousse”

• Add liqueur de tirage
  
  • ​​A mixture of sugar, yeast, yeast nutrients and clarifying agent added to the base wine to achieve 2nd ferment

The sugar is for the yeast to convert into alcohol, but more importantly into CO2 to provide the fizz. Usually 24g of sucrose per litre (which creates + 1.5% alcohol)

The special yeast inoculates the wine.

• Common to use same yeast for 1st & 2nd ferment.
• Must be able to start fermentation in abv between 9.5 and 11%
• low PH <3 (high acid)
• low temp (around 16ºC
• presence of SO2
• high pressure - builds up to 6 bar
• poor nutrients
• rapid autolysis - in trad method wines
• easy flocculation (ease of riddling/allow yeast to collect in cap)

• After adding the liqueur de tirage and inoculation, seal bottles with crown cap (holds plastic pot to catch sediment)
• The yeast converts the sugar to alcohol (+1.5% for 24g/l) and CO2. CO2 cannot escape so creates pressure (6 bars)
• Any sugar added now is converted to alcohol so does not affect sweetness of wine. ~4-6 weeks (cooler longer, more complex)
• Store bottles horizontally “sur latte” (on the strip - of thin wood) at constant 10-12C, - for period of lees ageing
• Stable temp important for yeast viability
• Note from Internet:*
• Today’s Champagne bottle is a dark green colour and designed to withstand 12 atmospheres of pressure. It weighs 860g and features a large indent in the base, making the bottle more shock resistant and facilitating vertical storage when the bottles are stacked “neck down” (sur pointe).*
• The second fermentation phase is crucial to the quality of the future wine. Too rapid and it produces large, flabby bubbles that soon go flat. But taken slowly, at a cool even temperature, it leaves the wine with fine, delicate bubbles that seemingly last forever.*

Question 17

Describe the qualities of the perfect yeast in secondary fermentation

Answer 17

1. Common to use same yeast for 1st & 2nd ferment.
   
   1. Must be able to start fermentation in abv between 9.5 and 11%
   2. low PH <3 (high acid)
   3. low temp (around 16ºC
   4. presence of SO2
   5. high pressure - builds up to 6 bar
   6. poor nutrients
   7. rapid autolysis - in trad method wines
   8. easy flocculation (ease of riddling/allow yeast to collect in cap)

Question 18

Describe Lees Ageing

Answer 18

Per the traditional method, after 2nd fermentation, the sparkling wine is aged for a period of time, on the lees.

• Bottles remain horizontal at a temp of 10degC “sur latte”
• Lees are dead yeast cells. Autolysis is the breakdown of dead yeast cells by enzymes - a process which
  
  • add creamy body/texture to wine
  • add flavours of biscuit, bread, toast, cheese, nuts
  • At 15 - 18m the full benefit of lees ageing, or autolysis is detectable.
  • ​Autolysis can continue for 4 - 5 years (sometimes as much as 10 - after 10 no further flav dev)
  • Chardonnay becomes creamy, Xarel-lo becomes smokey
• Anti-oxidative qualities of yeast cells protect the wine from oxidation in comparison to a disgorged wine of same age - thus some wines are kept on the lees even after autolysis.
  • Note that wines stored this way, evolve very fast after disgorgement (shock) and should be consumed early - example Bollinger “RD” - recently disgorged.
• The price that can be attained for the released s.wine determines the length of time that it can be matured (cashflow & cost to produce)
• Min time on the lees (in practice often longer)
  
  • Franciacorta - 18m
  • Trentodoc - 15m
  • Champagne - 12m lees, 3m bottle age/​

V= 12m lees, 36m Tirage - Release

• MCC - 12m (2020)
• Cremant, Cava, English SW, Sekt-TM : 9m
• No regulations but the above minimums guide: USA, Argentina, Chile, Aus, NZ

Question 19

Describe the last phase of the traditional method incl riddling, disgorgement, and closure.

Answer 19

After maturing “sur latte”, wines are placed into

• pipitre for hand riddling (remuage) or 4 - 8 weeks
• a gyropalette for automated riddling 3 - 4 days
• Wines are (stored) sur pointe prior to disgorgement so lees in neck of bottle
• Need to remove lees with min loss of wine/pressure
• Bottles cooled to 7ºC, necks immersed in frozen brine
  
  • i) Freezes sediment - won’t fall back into bottle when turned upright
  • ii) increases solubility of CO2, reducing bubbling out effect
• Disgorging machine inverts bottle to upright, removes crown cap, allows ejection of frozen yeast plug under pressure.
• Liqueur d’ Expédition added
  
  • tops up bottle
  • dosage (sugar and wine or RCGM) - determines final sweetness of wine
  • Brut Nature - no dosage
  • Extra Brut - wine added - final wine has<6g/l RS
  • Dosage also balances acidity - important in young wine
  • Perception of acidity rounds out with age - thus the older the wine at disgorgement, the less dosage is required.
• Liqueur de’Expedition sugar reacts with compounds formed during autolysis in a process called “Mailard Reaction” : result roasty, toasty vanilla aromas.
• Lastly cork, wire muzzle and metal capsule

Question 20

What is the Maillard reaction?

Answer 20

• The reaction of sugar in the liqueur d’expedition with compounds formed during yeast autolysis causes
  
  • The development of roasted, toasted, vanilla aromas
• Corked-sealed sparkling wines may be stored extra few months to ensure integration of these aromas before sale.

Question 21

Explain the Transfer Method of making sparkling wine

Answer 21

Advantages

• Avoids cost of manual riddling, yet retain bready/ biscuit notes from yeast autolysis in bottle.
• Reduces bottle to bottle variation
• Large vol producers save a lot of time
• Easier to make final adjustments
• In Champagne used for small/large bottles as diffcult to riddle (eg esp by hand).

Process

• Up to the riddling step the process is the same as for Traditional Method.
• After lees ageing chill wine to 0degC and discharged into pressurized receiving tanks.
• Wine is usually sweetened, add SO2, sterile filter just before bottling.
• Back labels may say “fermented in bottle” rather than “in this bottle”
• No riddling, so no fining agents needed to aid flocculation in liqueur de tirage

Question 22

What is the Ancestral Method?

Answer 22

• Single bottle, single fermentation
• Partly fermented must is put into bottles, and remaining sugar converted to CO2 and alcohol
• Sugar levels in must can be measured accurately so final pressure can be estimated
• In final phase of fermentation wine will throw a sediment (dead yeast cell); prod choice to retain as part of the style, or to disgorge.
• Typically no dosage.
• Often called Pet Nat (pétillant nature), as no set regulations
• Often low alcohol, cloudy, dry/off dry, often cider like flavours. No additional SO2, early drinking.

Question 23

Three synonyms for tank method

Answer 23

Cuve Close

Charmat

Martinotti

Question 24

The key steps in The Tank Method

Answer 24

• First fermentation
  
  • slow and cool to retain fresh, floral and fruit aromas and flavours 16ºC - 18ºC
  • SS tanks, temp controlled, hi vol
• Second fermentation
  
  • Tirage Sugar/ yeast added - rapid second fermentation in /presurised tank (< 1mth)
• Fermentation stopped when desired pressure/ RS reached
  
  • cool wine to 2-4degC
• Remove immed from lees, retain fruity aromas/flavours
• OR mature on lees up to 9mths (paddle, contact) for style, but many of economic benefits lost.)
• Cold Stabilise (after removal from lees) to precipitate tartrates.
• Adjust: Sugar levels checked, SO2 checked/ corrected prior to sterile filtering and bottling.
• Filter: Yeast removed by centrifugation or filtration.
• Bottle: Wine chilled to -2C to stablise/reduce effervesence, bottled with counter-pressure filter. (Counter pressure-filling: bottle first filled CO2 under pressure, filled with chilled wine replacing the CO2, thereby preventing O2 ingress and loss of CO2)

Question 25

Pros & Cons of tank method v trad method

Answer 25

• PROS Makes large vol sparkling wine inexpensive, quickly, much less labour
• No riddling/ disgorgement/ dosage/ long lees ageing
• Ideal for fresh, fruity style wines semi-aromatic (eg glera) or aromatic (eg muscat)
• CONS Seen as inferior method than trad
  
  • bias for prestigious trad method
  • inexpensive, so potentially uses lower quality grapes

Question 26

Asti method is a variation of the the Tank method.

How does it differ?

Answer 26

• Only one fermentation!
• Cool fermentation in pressurised, temp control tanks. 16-18degC (fruit flav)
• Sugar natural to grape, no Tirage
• Neutral cultured yeast
• MaloC prevented, retain acidity
• Fermentation: at beginning CO2 allowed to escape
• Must sugar content monitored, at the level calculated to deliver require RS and pressure, the valve closed
• CO2 from fermentation accummulates.
• When desired RS and pressure reached fermentation stopped by rapidly chilling the wine 2 - 4 degC
• Filter under pressure
• Yeasts/remaining yeast nutrients filtered to ensure stabilised wine, despite high level of fermentable sugar remaining.

Question 27

EU Labelling Terms for Sweetness in Sparkling Wines

Answer 27

• Brut Nature/ Bruto Natural/ Naturherb/Zéro Dosage 0-3gL - NB dosage cannot be added.
• Extra Brut/ Extra Bruto/ Extra Herb 0-6g/L
• Brut/ Bruto/ Herb 0-12 g/L
• Extra-Sec/ Extra-Dry/ Extra Trocken 12-17g/L
• Sec/ Eecco/ Seco/ Dry/ Trocken 17-32 g/L
• Demi-Sec/ Semi-Seco/ Medium-Dry/ Abboccato/ Halbtrocken 32-50 g/L
• Doux/ Dolce/ Sweet/ Mild 50+ g/L

Question 28

What is the liqueur de tirage?

Answer 28

• A mixture of sugar, yeast, yeast nutrients and clarifying agent added to the base wine to achieve 2nd ferment
• The sugar is for the yeast to convert into alcohol, but more importantly into CO2 to provide the fizz.
  
  • 24g /L >> 1.5% abv
• The yeast with which the wine is inoculated must be able to
  
  • i) commence ferment in 9.5-11%
  • ii) moderate temp 16C
  • iii) high acid (& low PH <3)
  • iv) increasing pressure up to 6 atmospheres (bar)
  • v) supports rapid autolysis in trad method spw
• The yeast nutrients (nitrogen etc) help feed the yeast
• Clarifying agent eg bentonite and or/alginate (seaweed extract to facilitate flocculation during riddling)

Question 29

What is Liqueur d’ expédition

Answer 29

• Liqueur of despatch- A mixture of wine and sugar (dosage) or RCGM (rectified concentrated grape must)
• It tops up bottle and determines sweetness
• Dosage balances acidity (esp in young wines) Age softens acidity: older wine at disgorgement, less dosage
• Some sugar is needed to encourage classic post-disgorgement aromas (Maillard reaction)
• Small, growing trend of no dosage (Brut Nature, tho rare to have suff balance, texture & complexity if bone dry) or Extra Brut (v small dosage wine <6g/l)

Question 30

Why would you age wine on the lees?

Answer 30

1. Style. Lees-aged character diff from fresh-fruit - adds a biscuity complexity
2. Law: Eg min 9 mths in Cava, 12mths NV champage -usually much longer. NB Autolysis us. continues 4-5yrs up to max 10yrs
3. Price (does ageing make sense?)
4. Financial/physical ability to invest in long ageing

Question 31

What is LALVIN DV10?

Answer 31

the trademarked name of an Epernay selection yeast by company Lallemand, which they claim works in

• low PH,
• high total SO2,
• low temperatures
• gives neutral flavour
• low foaming

Question 32

Pros & Cons of the carbonation method?

Answer 32

• The carbonation method is simply taking a still wine and and injecting it with CO2 in a pressurised tank.
• PROS
  
  • It is the least expensive. Good for cheap/bulk.
  • Does not alter aroma/flavour of base wine, so good for aromatic/fruity
  • The SW is produced and released in a very short time - cashflow benefit
• CONS
  
  • Bubbles die quickly.
  • Base wine needs to be good quality as bubbles accentuate any faults.
  • Perceived as cheap/ lower quality method

Question 33

Explain how corking works

Answer 33

• “ordinary” cork but significantly fatter - 31mm diameter
  
  • imposs to cut cork this width from tree of right age, so use agglomerate + disks natural cork (glued)
• Cork compressed by machine’s jaws by 60-70%, nserted into 18-21mm bottleneck (pressure of expanding cork against neck of bottle prevents leak)
• DIAM reconstitute corks to remove cork taint aromas from cork particles and ensure consistent porosity

Question 34

How does a wine maker make a lower pressure traditional wine?

Answer 34

Adds less sugar in the liqueur de tirage

Question 35

what variables affect formation and size of bubbles and transition through the wine

Answer 35

• More sugar converted to alcohol more CO2
• Capacity of CO2 to be dissolved - depends on grape variety, grape health (eg botrytis reduces bubble formation), winemaking processes
• Time on lees: some CO2 lost as more time on lees, but longer lasting foam
• How much CO2 lost at disgorgement
• Time in bottle/ type of closure
• Size/shape glasses, how wine served, temp when served ( lower temp, less CO2 released)
• Gen rule tank-fermented not lees-aged lively short-lived bubbles, trad method > 18mths lees finer, longer lived

Question 36

Reglated yields (hl/ha) per major style of sparkling wine?

Answer 36

• Franciacorta 65 hl/ha
• Cremant de Loire 74hl/ha
• Cremant Bourgogne max 75 hl/ha
• Champagne 79 hL/ha
  
  • (can be raised to 98hl/ha, surplus to reserve - permission Comite Champagne)
• Crémant (d’Alsace) : 80 hL/ha
• Cava 80 hl/ha
• Superiore di Cartizze 85 hl/ha (don’t use word Prosecco)
• Prosecco Rive 90 hL/ha
• Prosecco DOCG 94.5 hL/ha
• Trentodoc 105 hl/ha
• Prosecco DOC max yield 125 hL/ha

Question 37

What is the main problem making high quality sparkling wine in a warm climate?

Answer 37

• Sugar levels can rise and acid levels can drop off very quickly
  
  • you have to pick early to get the correct levels of acid and sugar
  • this often means picking grapes that are green and herbaceous
  • such faults are amplified in sparkling wines