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1: Basic issues in the study of development Flashcards

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1
Q

What is developmental psychology?

A

The description, explanation and prediction of age related changes in behaviour, emotions and social relationships.

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2
Q

What are the other disciplines developmental psychology draws upon?

A 
Genetics, 
biology, 
neuroscience, 
anthropology, 
sociology,
education.
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3
Q

What is the nature debate?

A

Hereditary causes of behaviour based on the genetic makeup which influences growth and development throughout life.

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4
Q

What is the nurture debate?

A

Environmental causes of behaviour such as parents, schooling, siblings, friends, school and nutrition.

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5
Q

Development is the interaction between what?

A

The interaction between heredity and environment.

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6
Q

What is behaviour genetics?

A

The study of genetic contributions to behaviour or traits.

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7
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

The idea that experience can turn on/off genes.

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8
Q

What are critical periods? Give an example.

A

Experiences required for developments to take place and are irreversible. E.g. imprinting.

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9
Q

What are sensitive periods? Give an example.

A

Experiences that most optimal at a certain time. E.g. language development.

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10
Q

What is the difference between critical and sensitive periods?

A

Critical periods are necessary whereas sensitive periods can occur at other times.

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11
Q

What are the two main explanations for critical and sensitive periods?

A
  1. Brain maturation and plasticity.

2. Our brains become increasingly specialised.

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12
Q

Describe Becket et al. (2006) study of Romanian adoptees (method and results) and what the findings indicated.

A

Method:
Romanian adoptees adopted before and after 6 months old. Then compared their IQ’s with UK adoptees.

Results:
Persistent effects of deprivation were seen in Romanian adoptees, which older adoptees more significantly affected.

Outcome was most optimal if adoptees were adopted before age 6 months.

Indications:
Evidence for a developmental sensitive period for IQ.

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13
Q

What are the four basic goals for understanding development? (Hint: PIED)

A

Predict
Influence
Explain
Describe

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14
Q

What are the three experimental designs used to explore developmental change? (Hint: CLS)

A

Cross-sectional designs
Longitudinal designs
Sequential (cohort) designs

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15
Q

Describe Fenson et al. (1994) cross-sectional study (method and results)

A

Method:
Asked parents of toddlers to describe longest sentence used by child.
N = 1,130
Aged 16-30 months old

Results:
Rapid growth in number of words in sentences at age:
20 months
24 months
30 months
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16
Q

What are the advantages of cross-sectional designs?

A

Quick and economical.

Demonstrate age differences and indicate developmental trend.

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17
Q

What are the disadvantages of cross-sectional designs?

A

Age trends may reflect extraneous differences between cohorts, rather than developmental change.

No data in the development of each individual (sequential data), therefore, provides no information about determinants of change.

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18
Q

What research method overcomes the disadvantages of cross-sectional designs? Why?

A

Longitudinal studies.

Allow some measurement of individual change of stability.

Allows exploration of the dynamic nature of change.

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19
Q

What are the 5 goals of longitudinal research?

A
  1. Consider change in individuals.
  2. Compare change and differences between individuals.
  3. Consider factors that drive change.
  4. Investigate causes of change in individuals.
  5. Investigate causes of change between individuals.
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20
Q

Describe Wood et al. (2012) longitudinal study (method and results).

A

Method:
Link between symptoms of psychopathology and absenteeism over time, using an autoregressive, cross-lagged model.
Grades 1 - 12 (6/7 yrs old - 16/17 yrs old)
Teachers report symptoms of psychopathology (conduct problems, anxiety, depression) and attendance records.

Results:
All autoregressive pathways were significant (stability).
Reciprocal relationships between absenteeism and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence (cross-legged pathways).
Clearest for psychopathology predicting absenteeism.
And also for absenteeism predicting psychopathology in adolescence.

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21
Q

What are the advantages of longitudinal designs?

A

Explores individual changes over time.
Explores patterns of continuity and discontinuity.
Uses same cohorts.

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22
Q

What are the disadvantages of longitudinal designs?

A 
Costly and time consuming.
Require large data sets.
Multiple (repeated) testing.
Attrition (dropouts)
Equivalence of methods over time.
Changing questions.
Cohort effects.
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23
Q

What research method overcomes the disadvantages of longitudinal and cross-sectional research? Why?

A

Sequential (cohort) designs. Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs to examine age related change across multiple cohorts.

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24
Q

What are the three main reasons microgenetic measures are used in sequential (cohort) research?

A
  1. Examines changes as they occur.
  2. Has small samples with dense data collection.
  3. Provides valuable information about changes as they occur.
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25
What are the advantages of sequential designs?
Discriminates between true development trends and simple cohort effects. Indicates whether developmental change experienced by one cohort is similar or not to change experienced by other cohorts. Less costly and time consuming than longitudinal research.
26
What are the disadvantages of sequential designs?
Still more costly and time consuming than cross-sectional approach. Attrition (dropouts) and biases.
27
What are the four main challenges for developmental research?
1. Developing measures that are valid and reliable. 2. Using representative samples. 3. Accurate methods of reporting (e.g. covert observations). 4. Using objective measurements.
28
What are the four methodologies used for objective measurement in developmental psychology?
``` 1. Observational studies. E.g. video recording. 2. Eye movement technology. 3. Imaging fMRI for blood flow and neural activity) 4. EEG and ERP ```
29
Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of observational studies.
Data rich. | Time consuming.
30
Describe one disadvantage of fMRI technology in developmental psychology research.
Difficult to work with children younger than 5-6 yrs old.
31
Describe 2 advantages and 1 disadvantage of using EEG and ERP in developmental psychology research.
Advantages All measured brain activity vs. event related activity. Good temporal resolution and neural response. Disadvantage Difficulties with localisation.
32
What is a theory of development?
A scheme or system of ideas based on evidence. It attempts to describe, explain and predict behaviour and development.
33
What are major theories? Give an example.
Attempt to explain larger areas of development. E.g. changes in cognition or social behaviour across ages.
34
Where a minor theories? Give an example.
Address very specific, narrow parts of development. E.g. ways in which eye movements develop.
35
What are the 6 theories used to understanding MAJOR theories of psychological development? (Hint: CHEMPS)
``` Cognitive development. Humanistic theory. Evolution and ethology. Motor development. Psychoanalytic theory. Social-cognitive development. ```
36
What gross motor skills develop at age 1-3 months?
Stepping reflex, lifts head, sits with support.
37
What fine motor skills develop at age 1-3 months?
Grasps object if placed in hands, sucks, control of eye movements, first smile.
38
What gross motor skills develop at age 2-4 months?
When prone lifts head and uses arms for support.
39
What fine motor skill develops at age 2-4 months?
Grasps cube when placed near hand.
40
What gross motor skill develops at 5-8 months?
Sits without support.
41
What fine motor skill develops at 5-8 months?
Reaches for and grasps object with one hand.
42
What gross motor skill develops at 5-10 months?
Stands with support and pulls self up to stand.
43
What fine motor skills develop at 5-10 months?
Points at object of interest, grasps with thumb and finger (pincer grip).
44
What gross motor skill develops at 5-11 months?
Crawls.
45
What fine motor skills develops at 5-11 months?
Grasps spoon, gradually learns to direct food to mouth.
46
What gross motor skills develop at 10-14 months?
Stands alone, walks alone.
47
What fine motor skills develop at 10-14 months?
Puts objects into small containers, builds 'tower' of cubes, produces first meaningful word.
48
What gross motor skills develop at 13-18 months?
Walks backwards and sideways, runs, climbs, walks up stairs.
49
What fine motor skills develop at 13-18 months?
Holds crayon with fingers, scribbles energetically.
50
What gross motor skills develop at 18-30 months?
Runs easily, jumps, skips, rides and steers tricycle, walks on tiptoe.
51
What fine motor skills develop at 18-30 months?
Vocabulary and articulation increases rapidly, picks up small objects (e.g. candy, sweets).
52
Describe Arnold Gesell's (1880-1961) theory of maturational motor development.
Motor development proceeds from global to specific in two directions: cephalocaudal and proximodistal. This sequence of development is constant.
53
What is cephalocaudal motor development?
Head to toe. The trend for infants to learn to use their upper limbs before their lower limbs.
54
What is proximodistal motor development?
The prenatal growth from 5 months to birth where the foetus grows from the inside of the body outwards, that being trunk to outer limbs. Infants as a result develop gross motor skills before find motor skills.
55
Describe Thelen and Spencer's (1998) Dynamic Systems Theory of motor development.
Motor development is the result of a dynamic and continual interaction between three major factors: 1. Nervous system development. 2. Capabilities and biomechanics of the body. 3. Environmental constraints and support.
56
Give an example of operant conditioning influencing gross motor development.
An ankle ribbon attached to a baby's foot causes the mobile toy above to jiggle when she kicks her legs. She learns the contingency between kicking and reward.
57
Describe Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development?
The child plays an active role in their own development. Adaptation processes enable the transition from one developmental stage to another.
58
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, what are the three adaptation processes? (Hint: EAA)
Equilibration Assimilation Accommodation
59
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, what is the adaptation process, known as equilibration?
The force which moves development along, as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering a new challenge via assimilation and accommodation.
60
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, what is the adaptation process, known as assimilation?
Using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
61
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, what is the adaptation process, known as accommodation?
When existing schema (knowledge) doesn't work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
62
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, what are the four stages of development? (Hint: SPCF)
Sensorimotor Pre-operational Concrete operational Formal operational
63
Describe the cognitive model's explanation of development.
The human mind is a system through which info flows, using encoding, storage, retrieval, strategies and meta memory.
64
What is meta memory?
A type of metacognition, comprised of the introspective knowledge of one's own memory capabilities and strategies used to aid memory, and the processes involved in memory self-monitoring.
65
According to Jean Piaget's (1896-1980) theory of cognitive development, infants are initially concerned with taking in information, and then building systems that support more sophisticated knowledge formation. This is an example of:
bottom-up processing.
66
Describe the four main aspects of Vygotsky's (1896-1934) theory of Social-Cognitive Development.
Cognitive growth stems from social interaction with knowledgable others. Learning is guided within the zone of proximal development. Social processes become internalised. Cognitive development varies across cultures.
67
According to Vygotsky's (1896-1934) theory of Social-Cognitive Development what is the ZPD?
The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between a persons actual development level when left to their own devices, and their level of potential development if aided by someone more knowledgeable and capable and routing problem solving.
68
What first theorised learning via classical conditioning?
Ivon Pavlov (1849-1936)
69
Who first theorised behaviour could be explained via chains of stimuli-response?
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
70
Who first proposed the theory of operant conditioning?
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
71
Who first theorised social learning theory, which incorporates the role of mind in learned behaviour?
Alburt Bandura (1925-present)
72
What are the four main propositions of ethology and evolution in developmental psychology?
1. Emphasises the genetic basis of behaviour. 2. Stresses the survival and adaptive value of behaviours. 3. Instinctive behaviour and imprinting. 4. Critical periods of development.
73
Describe John Bowlby's theory of emotional development.
Attachment is a primary drive. Proximity promoting behaviours and exploration become more organised and regulated over time.
74
What experiment demonstrated Bowlby's theory that attachment is a primary drive?
Harlow's experiments with rhesus monkeys given wire and cloth surrogate mothers.
75
What experiment demonstrated Bowlby's theory that infants used proximity promotion behaviours and exploration?
Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation. She used a separation-reunion paradigm to trigger the child's attachment system.
76
What are the four main components of Sigmund Freud's (1856-1939) psychodynamic theory towards developmental psychology?
1. Behaviour is determined by unconscious forces. 2. Personality consists of three structures. 3. There are 5 psychosexual stages of development. 4. Unconscious processes are difficult to measure.
77
According to Sigmund Freud's (1856-1939) psychodynamic theory, what are the three structures of personality?
Id, Ego, Superego.
78
According to Sigmund Freud's (1856-1939) psychodynamic theory, what are the five psychosexual stages of development? (Hint: OAPLG)
``` Oral Anal Phallic Latent Genital ```
79
Who were Freud's two biggest supporters?
Anna Freud and Erik Erikson.
80
Who was Freud's biggest critic?
Hans Eysenck “His place is not, as he claimed, with Copernicus and Darwin, but with Hans Christian Anderson and the Brother Grimm, tellers of fairy tales”
81
What are the 3 core components of the humanistic perspective in developmental psychology?
1. To focus on the individuals own subjective experiences, motives and desires. 2. Humans are motivated to fulfil their potential via self actualisation. 3. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs shows the weighted priority of each type of human need the must be met before self-actualisation may occur.
82
In order of most to least important, what is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
1. Physiological needs. 2. Safety and security. 3. Love and belonging. 4. Esteem. 5. Self actualisation.

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