05. Important Information Flashcards
Behavioural states include
variations in motivation, emotion and level of arousal
Define motivation
The entire constellation of factors, some inside the organism and some outside, that cause an individual to behave in a particular way at a particular time.
Define motivational state or drive
An internal, reversible condition in an individual that orients the individual toward one or another type of goal (such as food or water). This condition is not observed directly but is inferred from the individual’s behaviour; also called a drive.
Why are drives considered hypothetical?
Because they cannot be directly observed
How do psychologists infer drives?
by observing an animal’s behaviour (it is hungry if it behaves in ways that bring it closer to food)
What is motivated behaviour directed towards?
Incentives
How do drives and incentives complement each other?
A strong drive can enhance the incentive value (attractiveness) of an object. A strong incentive can strengthen a drive.
Homeostasis
The constancy in the body’s internal environment that must be maintained through the expenditure of energy
What is a theory about the physiological underpinning for some drives?
A loss of homeostatis
List the two classes of drives
Regulatory and nonregulatory
Define regulatory drive
Any motivational state (such as hunger) that helps maintain some constancy of the body’s internal environment that is necessary for survival
Define nonregulatory drive
Any motivational state (such as the sex drive) that serves some function other than that of preserving some constancy of the body’s internal environment
List the 5 categories of mammalian drives (from an evolutionary perspective)
Regulatory drives, safety drives, reproductive drives
social drives, educative drives
Define safety drives
Drives that motivate an animal to avoid, escape, or fend off dangers (e.g. fear)
List two reproductive drives
The sex drives, and drive to care for young once they are born
List two social drives
Drives for friendship and acceptance, drive for approval by the social groups which one is a part of
List two educative drives
The drives to play and to explore (curiosity)
Define the central state theory of drives
Proposes that the most direct physiological bases for motivational states, or drives, lie in neural activity in the brain. According to most versions of this theory, different drives correspond to activity in different, localizable sets of neurons.
Define central drive system
According to the central-state theory of drives, a set of neurons in the brain that, when active, mostly directly promotes a specific motivational state, or drive (different drives may have overlapping but not identical components)
Where in the hierarchy do central drive systems sit?
They are at the top. To affect behaviour they must influence the activity of motor systems at lower levels of the hierarchy
List two reasons why researchers believe the hypothalamus is the hub of many central drives
- Anatomically, the brain structure is ideally located
- Small disruptions in parts of the hypothalamus can have dramatic effects on an animal’s drives
In psychology, what is a reward?
Something that we
1. like
2. want
3. reinforces learning
What is the medial forebrain bundle
A bundle of neurons that runs from the midbrain to the basal ganglia and other forebrain areas.
Where do the cell bodies of the medial forebrain bundle reside?
In the nucleus accumbens
What is the nucleus accumbens
A nucleus (center of neural cell bodies) in the basal ganglia that is a crucial part of the brain’s reward mechanism.
The nucleus accumbens is understood to be a crucial centre for…
behavioural effects of rewards in humans and other mammals
Animals will work harder and longer for rewards if this tract is stimulated
The medial forebrain bundle
Many of the neurons in the medial forebrain bundle that terminate in the nucleus accumbens release this neurotrasmitter
Dopamine
Define dopamine
One of many neurotransmitter substances in the brain. It is, among other things, crucial for the “wanting” component of reward.
The larger the expected reward the greater the degree of release of…
dopamine
endorphins
Chemicals produced in the body that act like morphine in inhibiting pain.
Dopamine release promotes this type of learning
Long term potentiation (LTP)
How do drugs exert their euphoric and habit-forming effects?
Through action on the brain’s reward pathways
What evidence is there to suggest that the nucleus accumbens is acted upon by drugs to produce their addictive effects?
Rats will work as hard for a tiny amount of drugs to the NA as for a greater amount into the blood stream
Rats who have their NA destroyed will stop self administering drugs
What is the difference between addictive drug rewards and normal rewards?
Normal drug rewards stimulate the neuron in the NA only when the reward is unexpected, drugs stimulate them each time which creates a strong learning response (craving is triggered whenever cues that were present during the past drug-taking are again present)
Over time, what becomes the main reason for drug taking
Over time addicts lose the liking of the drug while wanting increases
How does gambling override the brain’s dopamine-conserving mechanism?
By causing a dopamine response each time there is a payoff
Why do some people have an unusually high susceptibility to compulsive gambling
they have high levels of dopamine receptors
What is feedback control
The substance or quality being regulated feeds back upon the controlling device and inhibits the production of more of that substance of quality when appropriate level is reached (all regulatory systems make use of this)
Where are most neurons which act as the food-o-stat located?
In the arcuate neucleus
What is the arcuate neucleus?
A nucleus (cluster of neural cell bodies) in the hypothalamus of the brain that plays a critical role in the control of appetite
Why has PYY received attention?
It is a hormone which is associated with appetite suppression. studies suggest that insufficient PYY contribute to obesity
What is leptin?
A hormone produced by fat cells that acts in the brain to inhibit hunger and regulate body weight.
What could relative insensitivity to the hormone leptin cause?
Obesity
sensory-specific satiety
The phenomenon by which a person or animal who is satiated on one food still has an appetite for another food that has a different taste.
In developed nations what factor is most determinant of obesity?
genes (more than specific home environment
Decreased food intake can activate 2 things, they are:
hunger mechanisms in the brain and a decline in the basal metabolic rate.
What are the determining factor 1. within and 2. across cultures that determine who becomes obese?
- genes 2. environment
What does the sleep drive regulate?
Unclear (other than sleep itself)
What is the most valuable index of sleep?
The Electroencephalogram (EEG)
REM (rapid-eye-movement) sleep
The recurring stage of sleep during which the EEG resembles that of an alert person, rapid eye movements occur, the large muscles of the body are most relaxed, and true dreams are most likely to occur. It is sometimes called emergent stage 1.
non-REM sleep
Stages 2, 3, and 4 of sleep, characterized by the occurrence of slow (delta) waves in the EEG and the lack of rapid eye movements.
Most dreams include what kinds of emoitions?
negative
During sleep which organs remain closed or open?
The eyes are closed but all other sensory organs remain open
What is the preservation and protection theory of sleep?
posits that sleep came about in evolution to preserve energy and protect individuals during the portion of each 24-hour day when there is relatively little value and considerable danger in moving about
Grazing animals sleep less than meat-eaters. True or false?
true
What is the body-restoration theory?
According to this view, the body wears out during the day, and sleep is necessary go put it back in shape
What is the body-restoration theory?
According to this view, the body wears out during the day, and sleep is necessary go put it back in shape
What is the scientific support for the body-restoration theory of sleep?
- sleep is a time of rest and recuperation
- Muscles are relaxed and BMR is down
- Growth hormone is secreted at a higher rate
How does body-restoration theory explain why smaller mammals sleep more than larger mammals?
smaller mammals need to maintain a higher level of metabolism because the lose heat faster than larger mammals, higher metabolism results in greater wear and tear on the body
Which sleep theory is best supported by research in birds?
Sleep protection theory, research has failed to show a correlation between size and metabolism but has shown a strong correlation between sleep and risk of predation.
List one thing across all vertebrate animals that supports the body-restoration theory?
All vertebrates sleep at least 1-2 hours per 24-hour period regardless of the degree of risk of predation when they are sleeping
What is the brain maintenance theory of REM sleep?
REM sleep provides regular exercise to groups of neurons in the brain. Helps to prevent synaptic degeneration (occurs more in foetuses and infants than adults
What is the function of dreams?
Nobody knows for certain
How does insomnia defer from nonsomnia?
nonsomniacs do not sleep much but are still able to maintain physical and psychological health, insomniacs see a decline. Insomniac has a normal drive for sleep
circadian rhythm
Any cyclic physiological or behavioral change in a person or other living thing that has a period of about 1 day even in the absence of external cues signaling the time of day.
suprachiasmatic nucleus
Nucleus (cluster of neurons) in the brain’s hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythms of sleep and arousal.
How does damage to the suprachiasmatic nucleus affect an animal?
The animal will lose it’s regular sleep-wake rhythm
What is melatonin?
The hormone most directly linked to the circadian clock. It is produced by the pineal gland and begins to be released about 2 hours before a person is ready to fall asleep
Apart from the circadian rhythm, what dos the suprachiasmatic nucleus regulate?
body temperature
What is sleep-onset insomnia
inability to fall asleep until very late at night or into the wee hours of the morning
How do changes in lighting impact the circadian rhythm?
By influencing rhythm generating neurons that run from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus
Define emotion
A subjective feeling that is experienced as directed toward some particular object or event. Contrast to mood.
What are self-conscious or other-conscious emotions? List a few.
Emotions that seem to depend on an individual’s self awareness or are related to the expectations and opinions of others. E.g. pride, shame, guilt, shyness, jealousy, envy, empathy, embarassment
Define affect
A noun referring to any emotional feeling.
Define mood
A free-floating emotional feeling, not directed at a specific object. Contrast to emotion.
Who is Robert Plutchik?
Researcher who created a classification system for emotions. He identified 8 primary emotions: joy, sorrow, anger, fear, acceptance, disgust, surprise, expectancy
What is discrete emotion theory?
he belief that basic emotions are innate and associated with distinctive bodily and facial reactions (extension of Darwin’s functionalist view)
Most emotions are associated with what type of changes in the body?
peripheral changes- changes in the body outside of the central nervous system. The changes are adaptive because of their communicative function or ability to prepare the body for action.
Who is William James and what did he contribute to psychology?
In his textbook The Principles of Psychology (1890) he suggested that bodily reactions precede the emotions that cause them rather than the reverse
What is the essence of James’ peripheral feedback theory?
the bodily reaction to an emotion provoking stimulus is automatic, occurring without conscious thought or feeling, the assessment of one’ emotional state follows based on the perception of the bodily state
What is (Stanley) Schachter’s cognition-plus-feedback theory?
Schachter proposed that the perception and thought about the environment influence the type of emotion felt while feedback about the degree of bodily arousal influence the intensity of the emotion felt. Intensity of the emotional feeling influence the interpretation of the stimulus
Who is Paul Ekman?
Researcher who proposed a theory of emotion similar to James’s but with a focus on facial expression
What did Ekman propose about facial feedback in relation to emotional experience?
According to Ekman, sensory feedback from facial expressions contributes both to emotional feelings and the production of the full body reactions that accompany emotions
What are the two main structures in the brain’s emotional system
The amygdala and prefrontal portion of the cerebral cortex
What is the role of the amygdala in regard to emotion?
It is the brain’s early warning system and receives stimulus from the body’s sensory systems
How does the amygdala receive sensory input?
Via two routes: a very rapid subcortical route and a somewhat slower cortical route
Which emotions seem to primarily activate the amygdala?
Negative emotions such as fear, anger, and disgust
What is the role of the prefrontal context in relation to emotion?
It is essential for the full conscious experience of emotions and the ability to act in deliberate, planned ways based on those feelings.
How is the processing of emotions divided over the two cortical hemispheres in the prefrontal cortex area?
right= processing of negative emotions and withdrawal
left= processing of positive emotions and approach
Which negative emotion is surprisingly processed from the left side of the prefrontal cortex?
Anger, which is negative but involves approach
