Youth Subcultures Flashcards
Postman
Argues that childhood is disappearing, he blames the media for exposing children to adult concepts such as death, disease, and sex. Postman says that youth is getting longer as they are staying in education longer and leaving home and starting families later
Abrams and teenage spending power
In the 50s there was rapid economic growth in Britain. There was a high job demand to rebuild houses. Abrams analysed the inc econ power of the ‘teenage consumer’. Young ppl earnings inc over 50% between 1938-1958
Abrams researched spending patterns and found young people spent the most amount of their income on leisure, music, clothes. The inc in econ power created a condition for emerging youth culture to develop from disposable income.
Functionalist opinion on ysbc
Believe soc is based on consensus, so an identity and soc solidarity within sbcs is important to prevent isolation and anomie
Parsons (func)
Argues youth only occurred bc of changes in the family assoc w capitalism. In a pre cap soc, the transition was marked by an initiation such as a bar mitzvah.
Parsons saw youth as an imp transitional stage where one must leave the security of the family and become and individual, they must break ties with their parents/childhood and get part time jobs (time away from family) → indep, develop skills (money+time management)
Parson argues that in most traditional soc, young people go through a ‘rite of passage’ instead of a ceremony. We don’t do much in contemp soc, just big birthdays such as 18
Eisenstadt, func
Eisenstadt saw youth culture as a way of bringing youth into society, youth is assoc w stress and feelings of anomie. Youth culture provides n+v, peers, belonging, and a safe outlet to let off steam in an acceptable way as it is usually put down to high spirits or hormones.
Eisenstadt argues that youth need a way to distinguish from their parents. Move away from ascribed role of child, and move onto achieved role of adult
Functionalists see it as a way of testing boundaries and experimenting. It contributes to social order .
Roszak, func
Roszak argued that there was a division between older and younger gens which created a ‘generational gap’ of values, interests and behaviours of youth that replaced class, gender, and race divisions, Roszak argued that the age out made them outdated and irrelevant
Hall and Jefferson (neo marxists/CCCS)
Hall and Jefferson said that wc, underperforming people form the weakest point in ruling class control bc they are not tied down like adults through jobs, family, school. The CCCS can be classed as neo-marxist, it was influenced by recent marxists like Gramsci
Abrams func
Abrams argued that the emergence of youth culture was linked to the emergence of a group with spending power. They were targeted by the media. Abrams believes that the youth were created by the media. Most functionalists wrote in the 50s when youth culture and media were developing
Brake, and the middle class
Brake believes that the mc are v different from wc youth and are more likely to be ‘countercultural’ (able to provide complete cultural alternative to existing mainstream culture)
Gramsci, nm, hegemony
Gramsci used ‘hegemony’ to describe the ideological dominance/soc authority of the ruling class over others. NM in CCCS use economic issues to explain sbcs
Or-
Hegemony- the idea that the ruling class ideology eventual becomes accepted as common sense
Plus
Gramsci argued that mass media perpetuated capitalist and fascist ideologies.
Murdoch and McCron (funcs)
Murdoch and McCron developed Roszaks theory and argued youth culture is a ‘generation in itself’ bc the new cultures would radically change society, eliminating the dated divisions of social class
Eval of func view
It generalised youth culture and didn’t account for subcultures, race, gender and soc class distinctions were not considered by funcs. Most func evidence came from white mc american men. (just like the sociologists that carried out the research) so it may not apply to all youth. Their analysis is ethnocentric.
Brake, ‘magical solution’ NM
Brake was sympathetic to the idea that ysbcs can be in resistance to capitalism but notes that it does nothing ro change soc or wc problems. According to Brake it provides a ‘mag sol’ to the wc youth plight- sbcs seem like a way out to every generation who think they wont be like their parents. But the same economic and social structures constrain everyone. The magic trick keeps working for every new wc generation that gets tricked.
Feminist evaluation of Marxism, McRobbie and Garber (fem)
McR and G argue that critical youth culture writers ignore girl sbcs which are different in content and style, they dont fit the conflict approach. McR and G were part of the CCCS but they challenged it as feminists. They pointed out that when girls were mentioned it was only in relation to boys, fleeting, or reinforcing stereotypes. Also male researchers were able to form a rapport with the boys. Girls operate different spaces and have more close knit groups.
Cohen evaluation of the neo marxist view
Cohen noted that the writers wanted to find resistance and were therefore subjective. The youth being studied could be interpreted in many ways. CCCS ignored hippies as they only saw ysbc as wc. Also the majority of youth doesnt belong to a sbc. The CCCS is seen as dated as current youth do not act the same as youth from the 50s-70s
Lincoln and bedroom culture
Lincoln found that boyfriends had access to the bedroom and that access to the internet and media meant that there were more external groups that had influence other than the friend group.
McRobbie and bedroom culture
McR says that girls are involved in bedroom culture, they meet with their friends in the bedroom to chat. It is a safe place within the home. This study was completed in the 70s however recent studies have confirmed its current existence
Reddington (fem)
Reddington argues that sociologists actively ignore women’s participation in sbcs such as Vivienne Westwood (female punk), music, journalism
Thornton (fem)
Thorton studied 90s dance music and found women had less status than men in the club bc they were assoc w mainstream pop
Redhead (post mod)
Redhead argues that sbcs developing outside of the media are no longer sustainable or realistic from the 80s onwards, and that contemporary sbcs or ‘club cultures’ are formed from the media.
Manchester Institute of popular culture
MIP researched club culture and found that there were no ethnicity, gender, or class divisions. MIP found that the media affects club culture diversity
Widdicombe and Wooffitt (pm)
W and W encouraged youth to talk about their exp and views of the world, there was no framework for the conversation (unlike the CCCS). They argued that yscbs have no fixed meaning
Bauman (post mod)
Bauman argues that there is no coherent social world, and that the world is complicated.
Roberts (Pm)
Roberts argued that young people pick up styles from the media and people around them, it has no underlying opposition or meaning.
Maffesoli (pm)
Maffesoli uses the term neo tribe instead of sbc. He describes it as a loosely organised grouping w no fixed membership or commitment. M argues that group id have no longer formed alongside traditional societal boundaries but that youth ‘flit’ from tribe to tribe, dabbling in some then moving on. There is no exclusivity.
Bennett (pm)
Bennett supports Maffesoli through research into newcastle nightclubs. Bennett found that neotribes are based around fashion, music, lifestyle but with no shared values. People mixed and matches but didnt id w a spec group. Bennett argues that social class is rigid but neo tribed recognise fluidity
Polhemus (pm) ‘supermarket of style’
Polhemus proposed that youth can create identities through picking and mixing various cultures, fashion, lifestyle, and music. Polhemus argues that there is a lot of choice so being committed to one style is less common. Young people are reluctant to give labels or restrict choices.
Eg retro fashion does not recreate every aspect from the past.
For postmods style>substance
Eval of postmodernism for subcultures
Hollands and Chatterton argue today’s youth culture is largely mainstream and corporate. Media drives sbcs. Are neo tribes individual or driven by club culture and the media
Eval of pm, St John
There are still divisions (politics, gender, ethnicity). St John discusses ‘postrave technotribes’- youth brought together by music and hedonism but incorporate resistance ideas such as social justice and human rights.
Teddy boys, rockets
see sheet
mods go back to
Emerged in the 1950s
Young men and women that listened to modern jazz. Rebellion their parents generation
Clashed with the rockers
Tailor made suit, Vespas
Cohen used moral panic to explain
skinheads
hippies
punks
goth
Teddy boys, key sociologist Hall and Jefferson
H and J analysed the symbolic meaning of the Edwardian clothing f and said the bootlace was borrowed of characters in western films that were wc aspired. Edwardian clothes were popular with the upper mc. By wearing their clothes they were usurping their social superiors.
Teddy boys, fyvel
argues that the teddy boys drawn from youth who had been excluded from affluence after ww2 and had lost out on their education
skin heads, clark
argued it represented extreme mascility bc they thought their wc id was under threat from economic conditions (form of resistance)
skin heads, cohen
found that many skinheads wore exagerated versions of traditional wc male clothes. they reasserted wc values as a response to the decline of large scale immigration that wc percieved as destroying community and taking jobs (racist)
mods, hebdige
the mods used money to create a style resistance against the mc, they could be smart and cool as well. italian suits, scooters
Hebdige and ysbcs and incorporation
the concept of incorporatin to describe how subverse styles are taken over by the media. when it becomes mainstream it looses its edge and reellion
Holland and newcastle nightlife
argues that bedroom culture no longer exists as many women now binge drink, have nights out, and get involved w club culture in a similar way to men. however the women studied here were older than mcrobbies study.
girls in recent sbcs, bennett
the roles of girls in sbcs are more obvious/unisex/strong/powerful. Bennett argued that pm neotribes are less gendered and girls can develop their own identity.
punks, hebdige
‘bricolage’- reuse of ordinary objects to create challenge and new meaning. bricolage occurs in punk culture as a response to the domininance of the media, fashion, and music industry.
hebdige argued that they are a ‘blank generation’ as they see themselves outside of excistiting culture, the only thing in common is rejection to order. H said the youth culture divide can be innovative eg, creating clothes safety pins, piercings
gender and sbcs, Thornton
thorton argues that girls have less disposable income due to the paygap. the teenage market is dominated by boys who invest in more time going out over studying (girls) mainstream culture is looked down upon by those w sbc capital. when it goes from underground to mainstream it becomes feminized.
Thornton challenges the CCCS
argues youth are exempt from adult responsibilities (bills and mortgage) and that youth have more disposable income no matter what class they are. she accepts that poverty and unemployment is widespread but even the poorest can partake in club culture.
gender and ysbcs, mcrobbie
points out that girl are active in sbcs. mags shift from romance to self confident sexuality. McR also points out that there is an intersection of gender and ethnicity: Black ‘ragga’ girls dance provocatively to reggae music which often has sexist lyrics to ridicule male sexism and reclaim their sexuality and id.
gender and ysbcs, Reddington
Active female members in spectacular sbcs, such a Vivienne Westwood, argues that punk has always involved women, it provides an outlet from the harsh restrictions in jobs and marriage.
Female punks are not taken as seriously as men and often are judged on their appearances more than men and are referred to as ‘punkettes’
ethnicity and hybritity in sbcs, hebdige
teddy boys and rockers were influenced by back rythm and blues in the US.
Hebdige argued that British ysbcs can be read as a ‘succesion of different responses to the black immigrant presence in Britain’
eg mods imitated ‘cool’ styles of the west indians and their influence on soul music (and skinheads).
more recently, Black music and fashion influenced white wc sbcs (white wannabes, nayak
rastafarian and reggae culture.split this card up when bothered
- jamaican culture, dreadlocks, red+gold+green colour of ethiopia flag, marijuana
- by the 60s there was a signif number of young people w african-caribbean origin in britain to form their own ysbc. sociologists were accused of ethnocentrism for ignoring these sbcs and favouring white youth.
- hebdige suggests the first sbc style was rude boys who were involved in looking cool, dealing cannabis, and pimping
- rastafarian movement developed in jamaica, it sees ethiopia as the holy land and white colonial capitalism (babylon) as evil. salvation is moving back to ethiopia
- marijuana is a key part of their religion- altered and higher state of consiourness.
- Rastafarian and reggae culture have cultural context for a generation of black youth, different from white culture.
Sivanandan, black youth sbcs
Sivanandan argues that distincitve black youth emerged as a result of 2nd gen black young people born and raised in britain being socially and economicallly marginalised for their race.
Black ysbc were a continuation of a colonial struggle transposed to Britain. opposition to capitalism and racism. S argues that the black ysbc were different styles but driven by the same sense of opposition to capitalism and racism in society.
Hall, Media and ethnicity, sbcs
The media presents black ysbcsas threatening and criminal. Hall et al found that the media closely linked young black men and street crime
Hebdige and Rastafarianism
Saw it as a form of resistance to white culture and racism, it has roots in relation to slavery. Attracted many Caribbean migrants to Britain as it offered a pos id, opposition to racism
Brasian culture, Johal
Johal suggests that some Asians adopt a ‘hyper-ethnic style’ which is an exaggerated form of their parents culture. Eg watching Hindi films or listening to Asian music.
Johal argued it provide ‘power through difference’ however religious, marital partner, and diet issues may lead to a position of selecective cultural preferences. ‘Code switching’ to move between one cultural form and another depending on the context.
ethnicity sbcs as resistance or hybridity
Rastafarianism and brasian sbcs
Rastafarianism- resistance against white culture
Brasian sbcs- more hybrid. Blend aspects of their parents id w popular British culture. However, they keep in touch with their traditional culture and celebrate their heritage. This can be a form of resistance.
Mercer, hair and ethnicity
Mercer discussed styling hair w/in black culture.
- It has a symbolic meaning and it emphasises black identity (form of resistance)
- straight hair as imitating white culture. Assimilation.
Mercer dismisses these interpretations as simplistic and sees all hairstyles as a form of hybridity
Ethnocentric social views, Hebdige
Funcs, cccs, and fems don’t consider the impact of race and ethnicity on ysbcs. Hebdige argues that there are clear relationships between black styles of dress, dance, music and urban sbcs. But it wasn’t explained further by sociologists. Which has led to them being accused of ethnocentrism. Some studies carried out by black sociologists have been less ‘white focused’. Eg Nayak
Modern primitives, and Vale and Junos view on body modification
Sbcs in the us and Western Europe are neutrinos- they have a loose membership and focus on individuality and self expression such a moody modification. “Symbolism drawn from non western ethnic groups colloquially referred to as ‘primitive tribes’” which makes it a hybrid sbc, they’re modern bc they take after many cultures.
Vale and Juno argue that bodmods are a reaction to sense of powerless created by living in a fast changing world. Power and control is regained
Cultural exchange and cultural appropriation
Elvis Presley criticised for stealing black music. Hybridity can lead to mixing and cultural exchange, however aspects of other ethnic cultures into white cultures can be appropriation eg modern primitives- tattoos of Chinese letters, and artwork, henna tattoos, bindis, dreadlocks
Hutnyk and cultural exchange/appropriation
H argues that there are power differences and western sbcs strip the meaning from the symbol and and use them superficially ‘cultural exchange’ suggests two way equal process but not true—> Britain imperial past
Youth deviance
ASBOs (antisocial behaviour orders) are issued for petty offences like graffiti and public drinking. Youth accounted for 37% of asbos in 2013.
Social class and youth deviance, Jacobson et al.
Ocs show that ex youth are more likely to be involved in c and d. J researched 200 youth and found that they had multiple disadvantages and complex bgs.
- 3/4 had absent fathers
- 1/2 were in derived households/ unsuitable accommodation
- over 1/2 regularly truant
- 1/2 had been excluded
- almost 1/2 had run away at one point
- more than 1/4 witness domvio
Bernardo’s charity- youth in justice system are predominantly drawn from poorest 20%
Youth detention centres show that less than 10% of persistent offenders come from mc bgs
Pitts gang research, social class and offending
Strong links between youth crime and disadvantages areas rather than factors such as family, edu, individual characteristics
Poverty has a negative effect on youth. Mc deviance like smoking weed is less likely to be labelled as worthy of attention by police and other agents of Soc con
Cambridge study in delinquent development by Farrington, Soc class and youth deviance.
(Longitudinal self report study of 400 young men) suggested that socio-economic rep was a key predictor of future criminality. We are much more likely to be caught/more visible—> targeted. However mc c and d may be more hidden
Gender and youth deviance statistics
- According to ocs c and d commented are overwhelmingly male. F commit less serious crimes less often.
- Young men 10-17 were responsible for 20% of all police recorded crime in 2009/10, f were responsible for for 4%
- ocs show that the peak age for female offences15 is younger that m18- girls apparently grow out of it
- ministry of justice 2012-13 82% of delinquencies are male
- 1994-2004 f in prison increased by 150%
Campbell, srs, gender and youth deviance
Srs show that gender differences in crime are not as big as adult differences, or as big as ocs suggest.
Muncie, gender and youth deviance
Argues that small rises in f crime can cause moral panic about girl gangs, says it’s an overreaction and that there is no evidence of female youth c and d increasing at a faster rate than men. Hegemonic masculinity (Connell) is still affecting offence rates
Ethnicity and youth deviance statistics
- maj of c and d is white British bgs
- population is disproportionate to the number of African Caribbean youth processed by the criminal justice system.
- black ethnic bgs accounted for 21% of youth in custody despite making up only 3% of the population
- young black men are 7x more likely to be arrested (2009/10)
- NACRO argues that these result may not just be due to the justice system but also due to poverty, Soc exclusion, or sbc formation w/out ethnicity minority inclusion
Lea and Young, ethnicity and youth dev
Discrepancies in the way black and white young offenders are dealt with in the criminal justice system. L and y argue that ocs miss that uk crime is ‘intra-racial’ (takes place w/in ethnic communities) Racially motivated crimes are more rare. L and y argue that when this is understood, explanation fir high crime rates of black criminals can be sought from within the black community. issues like street culture, poverty, deprivation must be considered as explantions
Cohen (func) status frustration
C noticed that wc youth committed antisocial crimes eg vandalism and violence bc of status frustration: a sense if personal failure and inadequacy gained from school (or work when not in the context of youth dev) wc are more likely to fail at school. They try to gain status by developing sbcs that invert read mc values: antisocial behav provides status as it is a sbc value. This is criticised as it is more applicable to men rather than women
Cohen assumes that wc boys react to their failure to achieve mainstream values but miller argues it is to achieve their own values
Coward and Ohlin(func), illegitimate opportunity structure
Influenced by meetings strain theory, c and o agreed that a mismatch between socially approved goals and mean could lead to offending. They suggested that Merton failed to understand that there was a parallel illegal set of goals and means to the legal ones (illopstruc) an illegal career is possible for some.
This is supported by Hobbs- Interviewed successful professional criminal. It is possible to a have a criminal career with the right qualities.
There are three possible sbcs for the illegitimate opportunity structure:
- criminal
- conflict
- retreatist
Illegitimate opportunity structure (c and o) and the three possible subcultures and their evals
- criminal: thriving, local, role model youth can ‘work their way up ladder’ in the criminal hierarchy.
- conflict: no local criminal sbc to provide opportunity but those brought up in this environment are likely to turn to violence, usually against similar groups, eg gang ‘warfare’
- retreatist: no conflict or criminal opportunities, retreat into sbc of alcohol and drugs
- Neat distinctions don’t occur irl
- no female deviance discussed
Nightingale
Studied black youth in Philadelphia, found that they were avid television devotees identified w fictional and non fictional successful chars. They wanted to be successful but were excluded racially, economically, and politically from ppting in mainstream us culture.
High status clothes, music, cars, brand logos etc were v imp to them. Sbcs come from a desire to be part of mainstream culture.
Miller, focal concerns
Suggests that antisocial behaviour was an extreme development of normal male wc values.
Soc focal concerns that lead to delinquency
- trouble
- toughness- as a good thing
- smartness- sharp and witty conversations
- excitement- thrill seeking
- fate (fatalism)
- autonomy
Cohen assumes that wc boys react to their failure to achieve mainstream values but miller argues it is to achieve their own values
Eval of func views
- generalised wc culture, in reality they Are subject to regional, ethnic, individual marginalisation.
- they accept police stats, which stereotype the typical criminal as young wc and m. Inters challenge this and argue that youth crime is more visible.
Matza evaluating func views on youth dev
Suggests that when explaining youth offences we should think less about the notion of sbcs and more about subterranean values, according to m everyone has some deviant values but they’re kept in check most of the time. They’re able to control desires and conform. Subterranean values emerge on holiday or when drunk (excuse to justify. Matza called these techniques of neutralisation
New right, Murray
Ysbc ppts haven’t received appropriate socialisation that matches the value consensus.
Different n and v of dependency, criminality, laziness
Murray argues that the underclass don’t want to work and they rely on welfare benefits.
M condemns single mothers raising boys. He suggest that it explains high criminality in young men from deprived social bgs. Suggests growing up in a single parent household is more damaging and a greater indicator of criminality than poverty.
Nr, Murray, boys and girls raised in the underclass
M suggests that girls without a father are emo damaged and search for a father substitute, get pregnant at an early age.
‘Boys without fathers tend to grow up unsocialised’ poor impulse control, sexual predators, unable to get up at the same time every morning to maintain a job. Tend to disappear shortly after the baby is born
Nr, Murray, consequences of the underclass
M concludes that it’ll be a disaster for Britain and that over the last two decades a large number of British children have grown up without the norms of self control, consideration of others, and the concept that actions have consequences.
He argued that like the US, the British public will become less tolerant of the underclass, politicians seeking votes will become more willing to toughen up on them. Perhaps by cutting benefits and using the criminal justice system more harshly.
3 explanation to c and d, Lea and young (nm)
CCCS saw deviance in sbc as resistance to soc con, as a reaction to their identity being threatened.
- relative deprivation->material crime/theft: comparison to others through the media. children feel deprived compared to adults as they have less freedom and are easily influenced by the media
- violent crime->marginalisation: they are excluded and feel powerless. lack of means to voice frustration
- sbcs->risk taking crime such as joyriding: relative depth and marginalisation may lead youth in particular to deal w this frustration by creating shared norms and values that may be deviant
Eval of m/nm
- ccs ignores ignores gender and generalises youth (not all are in sbcs)
- outdated, sbcs are now seen as more neotribes (pm)
- left realists ideas are more up to date and help to explain youth crime
Interactionist views on youth dev, Becker
only those with power can make labels stick. soc construction of deviance requires two groups- youth without power, and another group with power who label them as deviant.
cicourel (inter)
observed amer police officers (power to label) and found police were more likely to stereotype and label wc as delinquent but were more likely to negotiate w mc youth and their parents.
this can lead to a sfp for wc youth, they may also act differently when encountering police due to past experiences
Cicourel (inter) three stages of dealing with w potential deviants
1) stop/interoogate/ search based on their interpretation of behaviour as suspicious or unusual.
2) arrest dependent on their appearance, manner, replies
3) probation based on typical idea of delinquent and asses subject to see if they fit the profile.
apologetic and polite-> no action taken
parents convince police it won’t happen again-> no action taken
justice can be negotiated.
Cicourel (inter) study of two cities
big difference between two cities studied despite similar socioeconomic bgs
city a- constant high rate of juvenile delinquency. more probation officers were employed leading to more detailed records being kept
city b- crime rates fluctuated depending on media publicity and public concern
c concluded that delinquency was constructed based on the agencies of social control
Interactionalist Eval
inters some labels come first, don’t explain why some youth commit deviance before labelling and why other don’t
Social class and deviancy , young (left realist)
Challenges ‘underclass’ idea as a ‘sociology of vindictiveness’ and argues that we live in a ‘bulimic society’. Society sees and encourages goods (worship, money, status, success) but we can’t consume them as there is no way for members of society to achieve it.
Underclass feels an ‘intensity of exclusion’—> rebellion, risk taking, anger, resentment, frustration, exclusion, and humiliation fuelled by economic insecurity and deprivation. Wc youth deviance is seen as an emo resp to soc exclusion- driven by a strong desire for inclusion
Decker and Van Winkle, social class and deviant sbcs
White, social class and deviant sbcs
Willis, anti school sbcs and soc class, ‘the lads’
The lads saw school failures as pos, spent most of school time ‘having a laff’. They knew they’d get jobs in the local factory like their dads.
Follow up study of factory- still messing around. In this case, school prepared them perfectly for work.
Outdated- focused on boys who aimed for manual work already
Brown, anti school sbcs and soc class
Mac and ghaill, antischool sbcs and soc class
O’Donnell and Sharpe, antischool sbc and soc class
Lacey (inter) study of secondary students, antischool sbcs
Messerschmidt, and Harding, gender and deviant sbcs
Gangs act as a location for ‘doing masculinity’, which has to be accomplished and proved.
Harding suggests that masculity is accomplished depending on the social field a young man is in. Those without employment/hegemony masc find other ways.
Campbell, gender and deviant sbcs
Not finfished Connell, gender and deviant sbcs
The focus on hegemonic masc ignores other forms of masc and ignores female violence. Marxists may argue that it puts the blame on the powerless wc man while ignoring the ‘symbolic violence’ (bourdi
