Xerxes I and the Greeks Flashcards
Are there many non-Greek sources on Xerxes. How does this reflect his father?
There are few non-Greek sources on Xerxes
This contrasts his father’s many inscriptions
How is Xerxes presented in the non-Greek sources
as continuing his father’s legacy,
as completing his father’s building projects
as creating his own building projects
What building project did Xerxes commission at Persepolis
The Gate of All Lands
Where was the Gate of All Lands
Persepolis
What does the inscription accompanying the Gate of All Lands tell us?
- That Xerxes takes credit for the new gate
- That Xerxes presents himself as following his father
* He says both he and his father built the city of Parsa
* He says it is by the ‘favour of Ahuramazda’ that they built all the good construction seen
Does Xerxes ever mention Ahuramazda
Yes
What does the inscription at Lake Van in eastern Turkey say about Xerxes?
What tradition does it follow?
That Xerxes was appointed by Ahuramazda and that he is an Achaemenid
It follows the same formula as other inscriptions across Persia
How is Xerxes presented in Persians?
As a hot headed ruler who lacks his father’s wisdom and maturity
What does Persians focus on?
When was it published?
Focuses on battle of Salamis and reaction when news is brought to Susa
Published in 472BC
Why is Xerxes shown as a hot head
Popular theme of ‘pride before the fall’
Many Greek myths tell of mortals who are over-confident towards the gods, but end up coming off much worse
Who wrote the play Persians?
Aeschylus, an Athenian
hubris
Greek for pride or arrogance
Usually with relation to the gods
nemesis
Greek for retribution
Was Persians younger than Herodotus’ Histories
No, it was older by a few decades
What does Herodotus focus on with Xerxes
Dangers of great wealth and success, which he believed make the gods jealous and vengeful
What are Aeschylus’ and Herodotus’ sources useful for
telling us the Greek perception of Xerxes, not as a reliable insight to his character
Demaratus
A deposed Spartan king. Defected to the Persians in c. 490 and acted as a trusted adviser to both Darius and Xerxes
Years of Demaratus’ reign
c. 515 to c. 491
was Xerxes Darius’ eldest son?
No
How did Xerxes becom heir to the throne
Herodotus
Darius asked Demaratus for advice on who should be his heir, and he told him to use the Spartan method, whereby the first born after the father became king is heir
What does Herodotus say would have happened if Demaratus had not suggested to make Xerxes the heir
That Atossa would have made sure Xerxes became heir, but there is no evidence in the Persian sources that the wives of the king could wield such power
Persian sources on the accession of Xerxes
An inscription tells us
* He had to prove himself ahead of his brothers
* That Xerxes was the greatest after Darius
* That it was Ahuramazda’s desire that he become king
Hints that there was opposition to win the kingship
Xerxes’ brothers
Three full brothers, probably who he had to prove himself ahead of
Outline some reasoning for the Egyptian rebellion
Had not revolted in 522
Revolted in last year of Darius’ reign
May have seen Darius was close to death and been inspired by Marathon, and resented paying for the fleet that Darius was assembling to attack Greece
Who did Xerxes put in control of Egypt
Achaemenes (his brother)
What does Herodotus say of the Egyptian revolt
Not much, just that Xerxes crushed them and reduced them to worse servitude before moving on to Greece
Who probably led the expedition against Egypt
Xerxes
Where were other revolts
Babylon
Babylonian revolt
484
Meagre sources
Persians succeeded swiflty
probably caused by new legislation
Sources on Xerxes’ invasion on Greece
Herodotus: final third of his histories
Persian: None
Herodotus
A personal motivation for invading Greece
Needs to gain territory to live up to standards of previous kings
Mardonius’ reasons for invading Greece
Revenge against Athens
Some Greeks wanted Persia to invade
Reap the economic benefits
What does Xerxes’ personal motive echo
Formula of royal inscriptions
Who puts forward the arguement not to attack Greece
Artabanus, Xerxes’ uncle
What does Artabanus argue
Darius’ invasions of Scythia and Greece failed
Xerxes should at least not accompany the invasion
This fits a character type of the wise man being ignored, but probably contains seeds of truth
Estimates for size of Xerxes’ invasion force for his attack on Greece
Greek sources dismissed as absurd
*Herodotus: total number of soldiers is 2.6 million from 47 nations
*Herodotus and Aeschylus say the Greek fleet was 1,207
Modern scholars propose 60,000-80,000 men and 300-600 ships
How long did the preparation for Xerxes’ invasion of Greece take according to Herodotus
4 years
large preparations for the invasion of Greece
Set up depots in Thrace and macedonia
Canal cut through the Athos peninsula of northern Greece to avoid the waters that wrecked the fleet of 492
Two bridges of ships built across the Hellespont
Xerxes’ demands for earth and water
most towns surrender, particularly those in the north
Athens and Sparta not negotiated due to their previous conduct
Greeks fighting for Xerxes
Herodotus mentions the Thebans and Thessalians as being among the bravest of Xerxes’ force and doing great service respectively
Reflects fact that there were many Greeks, most from Asia Minor, fighting for Xerxes
When did the Persians set out for Greece
Spring 480
Artabanus at the Hellespont
Herodotus: Artabanus warned Xerxes of the dangers, (especially lack of harbours and supplies in Greece) but Xerxes sent him away to Susa to run the empire in his absence
Aeschylus: the Hellespont
Darius’ ghost laments that his son tried to enslave a god – the Hellespont was a deity as to the Greeks all water bodies were gods
Herodotus: the Hellespont
First bridge is destroyed in a storm, and Xerxes has the sea whipped 300 times, branded, and a pair of chains thrown in
Persian army’s journey after the crossing of the Hellespont
Marched through Thrace and Macedonia, and then to Thessaly
All the people here had medised and made a show of hospitality Persian fleet stayed close, coming into harbours around the northern Aegean
Number of Nations in Xerxes’ army (Herodotus)
47
Arms and armour of the Medes and Persians
- soft felt caps
- tunics
- linen breastplates and trousers
- wicker shields
- swords
- spears
- bows
An essential Persian tactic
Archers
Herodotus’ description of the Persian army that went to Greece
colourful, describing armour and weapons of each nation. Unlikely such a variety was used, but gives good information on the troops
Organisation of the Persian army
smallest unit: 10 men, belonging to a large unit of 100, part of 1,000, part of 10,000
Immortals
10,000 strong
Imperial guard
Always kept at full strength
Guarded gates and walls of Persepolis (where they were stationed) when not on campaign
Persian battle formation
Lines 10 deep
Front line create shield wall
Rows behind fire arrows relentlessly
Cavalry used to attack infantry flanks
Persian bow and arrow range
170 metre range
Greek battle formation
heavily armoured hoplites fight at close quarters in tightly packed phalanx formation
Persian cavalry
Well trained – important to Persian success
Harrass enemy flanks
Trained to shoot arrows or throw javelins across their bodies as they road – could fire from safe distance
Could charge infanty head-on and resort to close quarters fighting
Persian horsemanship
Important for noblemen to be skilled riders
Persians were great horse-breeders
Persian naval tradition
Not great – relied on other nations under their empire to provide ships
In the west, Egypt and Phoenicia provided most the ships, but in the 480 campaign many came from Asia Minor
Trireme
Usual warship of the time
Three banks of oars on each side
Relied on using ram at front of ship or board and overpower the enemy by coming alongside
Thermopylae as a myth
Became famous soon afterwards
Heroic example, inspiring the Greeks to fight on against Persia
Herodotus travelled to Sparta decades after, and by then it was a legend. Hard to separate fact from fiction, as he is the only source and gives the Spartan account
Hellenic League
- Herodotus mentions it, and it is given its name by modern scholars
- Alliance between the Greek cities who wanted to resist Persia
- 30 or so cities with Sparta as the leader
- August 480, Greek agree to send an advance party to Thermopylae to try to block the Persians at a narrow pass
geography
Thermopylae
Central Greece
Mountains meet the sea and it is easy for a small band of men to hold back a large army
Advance party to Thermopylae
- 7,000 men
- 300 from Sparta
- Reached Thermopylae before Persians and rebuilt a wall at the narrowest point of the pass and waited
the 300
Led by King Leonidas
All fathers of living sons so if they died they had provided future warriors for the state
What does Xerxes do when he sees the advance force waiting
Summoned Demaratus (former king of Sparta) as he did not know what to do
Demaratus told him the Spartans would not surrender and fight no matter how many of them were left
(used to put forward the Spartan idea of their army, and as the wise advisor being ignored by Xerxes)
Demaratus
Former king of Sparta
Advisor of Xerxes
Battle of Thermopylae
- 4 day standoff
- Xerxes gets impatient, sends in troops. Heavy Persian losses – lack of skill and equipment, and narrow space helps Greeks
Even immortals suffer greatly
Xerxes watched the battle and jumps from his chair three times in terror - Second day of battle Persians fare little better
Ephiltes, hoping for a reward, shows Persians a path round the back of the Greeks. Elite troops sent out in the evening - Dawn of third day, Greeks learn from scouts that they were about to be surrounded. Leonidas dismisses most of the Greek forces. The final battle wiped out the Spartans and the body of Leonidas is decapitated and his head impaled on a stake to rot in public
Forces that remained for the final battle at Thermopylae
700 Thespians
400 Thebans (surrender early)
300 Spartans
Sources of the Battle of Salamis
- Herodotus: lived for some time in Athens so knew the legends of the battle well
- Persians by Aechylus is important as he was likely present at the battle
- Neither account gives a clear picture
What were the navies doing during the Battle of Thermopylae
Skirmishing near Cape Artemisium
The Greek retreated after Thermopylae was lost, and the Persian navy followed at its own pace
Persian March to Athens
Brutally sack cities that oppose, spare those that Medised
Target Athens, in revenge for Sardis and Marathon
Athen’s preparation for Persian invasion
Before Thermopylae Athenians debate how to deal with Persian advance
Ask oracle at Delphi, Themistocles persuades vast majority to abandon Athens.
The fighting men sail to Salamis
Most women, children, and elderly go to Aegina and Troezen
Persians arrive in Athens
Find the city almost empty
Sack it and burn int to the ground, including the temples
Archaeologist found a ‘burn level’ which corresponds to the early 5th century
Themistocles
c.524 - c.459
Athenian leader who led the Greeks at the Battle of Salamis
Greek navy at Salamis
Brought to east side of the island
Herodotus lists 21 cities which provided ships
Fleet of 380, 200 Athenian
Many Greeks wanted to withdraw to the Peloponnese, but Themistocles engineered it so they fought at Salamis, where the narrow straits meant only a few Persian ships could enter at the same time, evening up the contest
Persian fleet before Salamis
Drawn up at Phaleron, the harbour of Athens
Xerxes consulted his naval captains. All spoke in favour of battle at Salamis, except Artemisia, who Xerxes listened to, but went with the majority anyway
Artemisia
Queen of Halicarnassus, a Greek city on Asia Minor
Argued against a battle at Salamis
Archaeology shows there was a diplomatic friendship between her and Xerxes
- a jar in a Halicarnassus royal tomb with the inscription ‘The Great King Xerxes’
Themistocles persuades Persians to fight at Salamis
When the Persian fleet put out to sea, some Greeks panicked.
Themistocles sent his slave Sicinnus to journey in a boat across the straits.
Sicinnus delivered a message saying that the Greeks were planning to sail away, but Themistocles was secrety on Persia’s side.
The Persians believed him and and moved their ships out into the bay of Salamis to block the entrance to the straits, leaving the Greeks no choice but to fight where they were.
Sicinnus
Themistocles’ slave who deliver’s Themistocles’ message to Xerxes
Battle of Salamis
Began at dawn
Persians move into straits
Sources give unclear picture of events
Appears that Persians did not understand the currents and many of the ships were turned on their sides, making it easier for the Greeks to ram them.
Advantage to Greeks due to the channel, Persian superior numbers mean their ships crowded
Xerxes watched from nearby headland. Herodotus: Xerxes was enraged and ordered the beheading of group of Phoenician sailors who complained
Greeks victorious
Aftermath of Salamis
Surviving Persian navy withdraws to Asia Minor
Xerxes returns to Sardis
Mardonius in charge of Persian army, which wintered in northern Greece
479, Greeks deliver final defeat at Plataea in central Greece, and at Mycale on the coast of Ionia
Persian invasion had failed
Delian League
Modern name for the alliance made in 477 by numerous Greek states and led by Athens to defend against further Persian aggression in the aftermath of the Persian Wars
Delian League success
In Hellespont, Thrace, and Cyprus
Battle of Eurymedon in southern Asia Minor
Battle of Eurymedon
Early 460s
Decisive land and naval battle between Delian League and Persia
Delian League led by Cimon.
Greece victorious
Limitted sources
Thucidydes says the entire Phoenician fleet of 200 was destroyed or captured
Cimon
Son of Miltiades
Commander of Athens at Eurymedon
Sources on Battle of Eurymedon
Thucydides gives a short account
Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) gives a detailed account, but it is flawed, e.g. the sea and land battles happened more than 100 miles apart, but on the same day with the same troops
Plutarch (2nd century AD) gives a more plausible account, however it is part of a biography of Cimon, whom he praised uncritically. Claims Xerxes (not present) had been so humbled he chose to make peace with Greece
Plutarch
Conditions of Xerxes’ peace agreement
Xeres would always keepat least a day’s ride from the Greek sea, and would not bring any long ship or bronze-rammed ship beyond the Cyanean islands and the Chelidonian islands
Other sources on the peace between Greece and Persia
Cease hostilities to 450 or 449
Debated whether formal peace ever signed
Certain that after Eurymedon, Persia did not campaign in Aegean for many decades, and Xerxes’ successor Artaxerxes seemed to have accepted the western limits of the Persian Empire
Islands in Xerxes’ peace treaty
Chelidonian: south east Asia Minor, some distance from the Aegean
Cyanean: near Byzantium at entrance to Black Sea
Xerxes’ death
Assassinated in 465
