WWI AND WARTIME AGREEMENTS Flashcards
What was the primary goal of Britain in the Middle East during WWI?
The primary goal was to fight against the Ottoman Empire, which was an ally of Germany. Britain aimed to disrupt the Ottoman war effort, secure the Suez Canal, and prevent Ottoman attacks on British territories in the Middle East.
What were the three primary British military thrusts in the Middle East during WWI?
Palestine: The Egyptian Expeditionary Force crossed the Sinai and captured Jerusalem in 1917, eventually taking Damascus in 1918.
Mesopotamia: British forces, with the Indian Army, invaded and suffered defeats before capturing Baghdad (1917) and Mosul (1918).
Istanbul/The Straits: Britain attempted to capture the Dardanelles Straits to knock out the Ottoman Empire, but faced failure in 1915 after heavy losses.
What was the Armistice of Mudros and its significance?
The Armistice of Mudros was signed in late 1918 and marked the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. It ended the fighting between the Ottomans and the Allies, resulting in the loss of nearly all Ottoman Arab territories to Britain and France.
Who was Sharif Hussein bin Ali, and why was Britain interested in forming an alliance with him?
Sharif Hussein bin Ali was the ruler of the Hejaz (western Arabia) and the custodian of Makkah and Medina. Britain sought his alliance to disrupt the Ottoman Empire, secure the Suez Canal, and undermine the Ottoman call for jihad against the Allies.
What was promised to Sharif Hussein in exchange for his support in the Arab Revolt?
£50,000 in gold annually.
Weapons, ammunition, and food.
British military assistance and advisors.
The creation of a pan-Arab state, which was to theoretically include Palestine.
What was the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, and what issue arose from it after the war?
The McMahon-Hussein Correspondence was a series of letters between Britain and Sharif Hussein in 1915-1916. It promised a pan-Arab state after the war, but the vague wording led to disagreements over the boundaries of the future state, particularly regarding Palestine.
How did Britain interpret the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence in regard to Palestine?
Britain later interpreted the agreement as excluding Palestine from the future Arab state. The correspondence mentioned areas west of Damascus, which Britain later decided included Palestine.
What was the Sykes-Picot Pact, and what territories did it assign to Britain and France?
The Sykes-Picot Pact, signed in 1916, was a secret agreement between Britain, France, and Russia. It divided the Ottoman Empire’s Middle Eastern territories:
Britain: South-east Mesopotamia, Haifa in Palestine, and a British-influenced Arab state.
France: South-east Turkey and the Lebanese/Syrian coastline.
Russia: Armenia and Istanbul.
An international territory was to be established for Jerusalem and surrounding areas.
Why did the Sykes-Picot Pact create tension with the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence?
The Sykes-Picot Pact conflicted with the promises made to Sharif Hussein, particularly regarding Palestine and Syria, which were promised to become part of an Arab state. The pact created a colonial division of the region that undermined Arab hopes for independence.
What was the impact of the Bolshevik Revolution on the Sykes-Picot Pact?
In 1917, the Bolshevik Party in Russia leaked the Sykes-Picot Pact to the public, revealing the secret agreement and damaging British-Arab relations. This was seen as a betrayal of the promises made to the Arabs in the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence.
What was the Balfour Declaration, and when was it issued?
The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued on November 2, 1917, by the British government, expressing support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine.
What were the main issues with the Balfour Declaration from an Arab perspective?
The Balfour Declaration contradicted Britain’s promises to the Arabs, particularly in the McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, and was seen by Palestinians and Arabs as a betrayal that paved the way for Jewish settler-colonialism in Palestine.
Why did Britain issue the Balfour Declaration despite opposition?
The war effort had stalled, and Britain needed a decisive breakthrough.
The collapse of Russia and the precarious position of France made the situation more difficult.
Britain sought to gain American support, as President Wilson and the American Jewish population supported Zionism.
What key clauses were in the final Balfour Declaration?
Support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine.
It stated that nothing would be done to prejudice the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine.
It emphasized the non-prejudicing of Jews’ political rights elsewhere.
How was the Balfour Declaration viewed by Zionists and Palestinians?
Zionists celebrated the Balfour Declaration, seeing it as a major endorsement of their cause. Palestinians and many Arabs viewed it as an imperial imposition, believing it undermined their rights to self-determination in Palestine.
What was the King-Crane Commission, and what did it report in 1919?
The King-Crane Commission was a post-war investigation into the political status of the Middle East, specifically Palestine. It concluded that the Zionist plan for a Jewish state would severely violate the civil and religious rights of Palestinians and called for modification of Zionist aims.
What were the main historiographical debates on the motivations behind the Balfour Declaration?
Barr: The Declaration was a British strategy to create a pro-British Jewish polity in Palestine to secure the Suez Canal.
Gelvin: It was a diplomatic miscalculation based on overestimating Jewish influence.
Stein: The Declaration was largely due to the political activity of Zionist leaders like Weizmann.
Vereté: It was a pragmatic decision to secure British interests in Palestine and the region.
Schneer: It sowed the seeds of violence and conflict, creating lasting problems.
What did Britain achieve at the San Remo Conference in 1920 regarding Palestine?
At the San Remo Conference, Britain was granted an enlarged mandate over Palestine, which included the territory around Jerusalem. France accepted this change in exchange for British support regarding post-war reparations from Germany.
What happened to the dream of a united Arab state after WWI?
The dream of a unified Arab state, which included Palestine, was shattered as Britain and France divided the region into separate mandates. This fragmentation contributed to the development of more localized nationalisms, such as Palestinian nationalism.
How did Britain address the Hejaz after the war?
Britain initially tried to involve Sharif Hussein in post-war agreements, but after his rejection of the exclusion of Palestine from an Arab state, Britain switched its support to Abdulaziz bin Saud, who later established Saudi Arabia by conquering the Hejaz in 1925.
What was the fate of Palestine after WWI?
Following WWI, Palestine was placed under British control as part of the Palestine Mandate. Tensions between the Jewish and Arab populations increased as Zionist immigration grew, setting the stage for future conflicts.
