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A level Politics Unit 3 > World Order > Flashcards

World Order Flashcards

1
Q

Define GLOBAL POLITICS

A

Global politics refers to politics that is conducted at a global rather than a national or regional level.

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2
Q

Define THE STATE

A

The most important actor on the global stage is the sovereign state. A state has 5 features:

  1. A defined territory with borders
  2. A permanent population
  3. A central government that can exercise both internal and external sovereignty
  4. A monopoly on legitimate force within its borders.
  5. Recognised by other states and the UN
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3
Q

Define SOVEREIGNTY

A

Sovereignty is the principle of absolute and unlimited power - the absence of a higher authority other than the state in either domestic or external affairs.

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4
Q

Define INTERNAL SOVEREIGNTY

A

Internal sovereignty refers to the relationship between
a sovereign power and its subjects; it is the location of sovereignty within a state. It makes decisions that are binding on all citizens, groups and institutions within the states borders.
EXAMPLE: in the UK, sovereignty is (in theory) located in Parliament.

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5
Q

Define EXTERNAL SOVEREIGNTY

A

Commonly referred to as state sovereignty. It refers to the capacity of the state to act independently and autonomously on the world stage. Arguably the greatest threat to state sovereignty is globalisation.

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6
Q

Define ANARCHY

A

Anarchy means literally, without rule; the absence of a central government or higher authority, sometimes, but not necessarily, associated with instability and chaos.

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7
Q

Define SELF-HELP

A

Self-help is a system is which states are forced to rely on themselves as all states are sovereign, autonomous and put their own survival and security first.

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8
Q

Define SECURITY DILEMMA

A

The security dilemma is the dilemma that arises from the fact that a build-up of military capacity for defensive reasons by one state is always liable to be interpreted as aggressive by other states.

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9
Q

Define RELATIVE GAINS

A

Relative gains is the notion that it is in a state’s best interest not to make a deal if their rivals benefit more from it, as states are concerned with maintaining or improving their position in relation to the position of other states.

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10
Q

Define NEO-REALIST STABILITY THEORY

A

Neo-realist stability theory is the idea that only two great powers is the key to ensuring peace and stability. Each maintains the bipolar system as by doing so they are maintaining themselves. ‘Power checks power’. Coined by Kenneth Waltz.

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11
Q

Define OFFENSIVE NEO-REALISTS

A

Offensive realism is a form of structural realism that portrays states as ‘power maximizers’, as there is no limit to their desire to control the international environment.
Robert Gilpin, John Mearsheimer.

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12
Q

Define DEFENSIVE NEO-REALISTS

A

Defensive neo-realism is a form of neo-realism where the emphasis is on states being ‘security maximisers’. They tend to avoid war and prioritise their own security.
Kenneth Waltz,

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13
Q

Define POWER

A

Power explains how states can get other states to do something it would not otherwise have done. Realists believe that international relations are shaped by power.

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14
Q

Define RELATIONAL POWER

A

Relational power is the ability of one actor to influence another in a manner not of their choosing. Usually based on military capacity, economic capacity, geography and population. It is a measure of power.
EXAMPLE: Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014.

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15
Q

Define STRUCTURAL POWER

A

Structural power, as defined by Susan Strange, is the ability to shape the frameworks within which global actors relate to one another, thus affecting ‘how things shall be done’. Can be in terms of knowledge, finance, security or production. It is a measure of power.

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16
Q

Define SOFT POWER

A

Soft power is the ability to attract and influence other actors by persuading them to follow norms and aspirations that produce the desired behaviour. Developed by Joseph Nye. It is a method of power.
EXAMPLE: The USA have a culture, political values and foreign policies that are attractive to the rest of the world and allow them to gain influence.
However, soft power is usually useless without hard power. e.g Sweden.

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17
Q

Define HARD POWER

A

Hard power is the ability of one actor (usually but not necessarily a state) to influence another through the use of threats or rewards, typically involving military ‘sticks’ (threats) or economic ‘carrots’ (rewards). Developed by Joseph Nye. It is a method of power.

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18
Q

Define SMART POWER

A

Smart power can be defined as a combination of hard and soft power. The idea is that the hard power encourages enemies to respond to soft power.
EXAMPLE: The USA under the Obama administration - his Cairo speech in June 2009 help end the ‘war on terror’ but he continued a policy of drone warfare to attack militant Islamists in certain countries.

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19
Q

Define a GREAT POWER

A

A great power is a state deemed to rank amongst the most powerful in a hierarchical state-system. The criteria that define a great power are subject to dispute, but four are often identified:

  1. First rank military prowess
  2. Economically powerful
  3. Global spheres of interest
  4. Have an actual impact on international affairs (not isolationist).
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20
Q

Define a SUPERPOWER

A

Superpower is a power that is greater than a traditional ‘great power’. Superpowers possess great power ‘plus great mobility of power’. Usually used to refer to the USA and USSR during the Cold War. Features:
1. A global reach
2. A predominant economic and strategic role within their sphere of influence.
3. Superior military capacity, especially in terms of nuclear weaponry.
(it was first coined by William Fox in 1944).

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21
Q

Define a REGIONAL POWER

A

A regional power is a state that has the ability and expertise to exert its influence within a geographic region.

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22
Q

Define an EMERGING POWER

A

An emerging or rising power is a nation rising in terms of power, primarily economically, which has steadily increased their presence in global affairs.

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23
Q

Define BIPOLARITY

A

Bipolarity is the tendency for the international system to revolve around two major power blocs. Approximate equality exists between the two poles, certainly in terms of military power.
Realists favour this (brings peace due to the balance of power); liberals do not (brings tension and hostility and hegemonic ambitions).
EXAMPLE: The Cold War between the USA and USSR.

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24
Q

Define the BALANCE OF POWER

A

The balance of power is a condition in which no one state predominates over others, tending to create general equilibrium and curb the hegemonic ambitions of all states.

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25
Q

Define UNIPOLARITY

A

Unipolarity refers to an international system in which there is one preeminent state, or ‘pole’. In a unipolar system there is but a single great power, implying an absence of constraints or potential rivals, meaning that single state can ‘set the agenda’ independently.

The single actor may act as the ‘world’s police, preventing war and helping to guarantee international stability.
EXAMPLE: Pax Britannica and Pax Americana.

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26
Q

Define HEGEMON

A

A hegemon is the leading state within a collection of states.

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27
Q

Define UNILATERALISM

A

Unilateralism is one-sidedness; a policy determined by the interests and objectives of a single state, unconstrained by other states and bodies. Opposite of multilateralism.

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28
Q

Define MULTILATERALISM

A

Multilateralism is a policy of acting in concert with 3 or more states or international organisations, in a system of coordinated relations.
Opposite of unilateralism

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29
Q

Define the ‘WAR ON TERROR’

A

The ‘war on terror’ refers to the efforts by the USA and its key allies to root out and destroy the groups and forces deemed to be responsible for global terrorism.

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30
Q

Define MULTIPOLARITY

A

Multipolarity is an international system in which there are three or more power centres.

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31
Q

Define COLLECTIVE SECURITY

A

Collective security is the idea or practice of common defence, in which a number of states pledge themselves to defend each other, based on the principle of ‘all for one and one for all’.

32
Q

Define HEGEMONIC TRANSITION THEORY

A

Hegemonic transition theory is the theory, coined by Robert Gilpin (1987), that the most unstable periods of time in international relations is when the world order begins to change, leading to a threat to the hegemonic power.
EXAMPLES: The rise of Germany before WW1 that threatened Britain and the rise of China in the 21st century that threatens the USA.

33
Q

Define POLARITY

A

The polarity of an international power distribution refers to the number of independent power centres in the system.

34
Q

What is the difference between relational and structural power?

A

Relational power refers to one state’s power in comparison to another and their ability to force another state to do something they would not normally do.
Structural power refers to a state’s ability to influence international frameworks that determine how international actors relate to one another.

35
Q

How can the idea of relational power be challenged?

A
  • The factors that determine what makes a state powerful are controversial.
  • Some ‘good’ factors may weaken a state’s power e.g. an educated population may mean it is less likely to go to war
  • Capacity may not translate to power e.g. nuclear weapons to face a terrorist threat
  • Power is ever changing and never fixed
  • Unquantifiable factors may grant power e.g. willingness to go to war, morale of the country
36
Q

What are the sources of soft power?

A
  • The culture of the state
  • The political values of the state
  • The foreign policy of the state
37
Q

What are examples of hard, soft and smart power?

A

Hard power: Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014
Soft power: Obama’s Cairo speech in 2009, Hollywood films, the US constitution
Smart power: the US AfPak policy in Afghanistan, where they continue drone strikes but offer economic aid simultaneously.

38
Q

In what two ways is power shifting in the 21st century?

A
  1. West to East - Decline of the West and the rise of the rest
  2. Away from states to non-state actors (‘power diffusion)
39
Q

How is power distributed today? (according to Joseph Nye)

A

In terms of military power, the world is unipolar as the US remains unchallenged.
In terms of economic power, the world is multipolar, as there are powers that are able to balance the US’s strength
In terms of transnational relations (things that cross borders outside the role of governments), the world is nonpolar, as power is chaotically distributed.

40
Q

What has contributed to the growing influence of soft power?

A
  • Globalisation and the cross border flows of information and ideas.
  • The ‘war on terror’ exposed the limits of hard power and demonstrated the need for countries like the USA and UK to win ‘hearts and minds’.
  • Hard power is significantly more expensive than soft power. This is particularly important following the economic crisis of 2007/2008.
  • Fewer wars mean that military capability and hard power is becoming redundant.
  • Wars are becoming unwinnable due to the use of insurgency, guerrilla tactics and the increase in fundamentalism.
41
Q

How many people died in WW1?

A

Around 11 million people.

42
Q

How many people died in WW2?

A

Around 55 million people.

43
Q

Why do neorealists favour biploarity?

A
  • The possibility of conflict is decreased because there are fewer powers.
  • The balance of power and MAD means that attacking the other superpower will lead to your own annihilation.
  • Bipolar systems tend to divide the world more or less evenly and it forms two major alliances that most states will join.
44
Q

Why do liberals favour multipolarity?

A
  • There is a relatively equal power distribution, so no state has the opportunity to easily dominate.
  • They tend towards multilateralism, forcing states to work together.
  • This achieve peace and international stability.
45
Q

What was the Strategic Defence Initiative?

A

A system that was developed by the USA during the Reagan administration. It had the potential to deter or neutralise nuclear weapons that may have been sent by the Soviet Union. It did this by building a defence shield that essentially made Russian weapons useless.
In the process, it weaponized/militarised space.

46
Q

Why is bipolarity criticised?

A
  • During the Cold War it strengthened imperialistic tendencies in both the USA and USSR as they scrambled to ‘recruit’ decolonised nations.
  • Produced ongoing tension that had the potential to lead to nuclear war.
  • Intensified the security dilemma.
47
Q

What are some criticisms of the ‘War on Terror’?

A
  • The USA overestimated the effectiveness of military power.
  • The strategy of imposing ‘democracy from above’ did not take into account the local conditions of countries that may not be capable of democracy.
  • Strengthened support for militant Islam in response/retaliation.
48
Q

Define the COLD WAR

A

The Cold War was the state of protracted and extreme tension between the rival alliances of the USA and USSR.

49
Q

Define EXTRAORDINARY RENDITION

A

Extraordinary rendition was the apprehension and extrajudicial transfer of a person from one country to another. A tactic used by the USA, with the majority of torture happening in CIA ‘black spots’ in North Africa.

50
Q

What was the ‘Axis of Evil’ speech?

A

A speech given by President George W. Bush in January 2002. It described the governments he accused of helping global terrorism and seeking weapons of mass destruction. It renewed aggression towards supposedly ‘rogue states’ such as Iran, Iraq, North Korea, Syria, Cuba and Libya.

51
Q

What was the ‘Iraq surge’ in 2007?

A

The increase in the number of US troops in Iraq sent by George W. Bush to provide security to Baghdad, the capital of Iraq. More than 60,000 soldiers were sent.

52
Q

What are some examples of Obama’s use of hard power?

A
  • In 2010, because of ongoing insurgency, Obama ordered 30,000 more US troops to be sent to Afghanistan in the ‘Afghan surge’
  • In 2011, Obama approved the killing of Osama bin Laden
  • PRISM spy programme
  • Continued drone attacks (e.g. in Yemen, Pakistan and Somalia)
53
Q

What are soft examples of Obama’s use of soft power?

A
  • June 2009. 6 months into his presidency he gave the Cairo speech which sought to launch a new relationship with the Arab world. Effectively ended the war on terror.
  • Won the Nobel Peace Prize for this in December 2009
  • Withdrew most American combat troops from Afghanistan by 2014.
54
Q

What was the significance of Russia’s war with Georgia?

A

Georgia had increasing links with the USA. Arguably it was therefore a war between the USA and Russia. It also allowed Russia to re surge its great power status.

55
Q

In what ways is China rising?

A
  • Only state that could potentially overtake America.
  • Annual growth rates of 8-10% from 1970s on
  • Largest population in the world of over 1.3 billion
  • People’s Liberation Army is 2,000,000+
  • Confucianism provides a cultural basis for cooperation.
  • Rising structural power through the ‘One Belt, One Road’ policy that provides infrastructure investments across Asia to Europe.
56
Q

What are some threats to China’s rise?

A
  • India and Japan are growing too.
  • China’s economy relies heavily on cheap labour and they have not yet transitioned to advanced skills and production techniues.
  • The one child policy (1979) has resulted in an ageing population
  • There is conflict between its economic and political systems
57
Q

In what ways is India rising?

A
  • World’s largest liberal democracy (lots of soft power)
  • World leader in industries such as computer tech and biotech.
  • This year and next, economic growth will outplace China’s. It grows at around 7% a year
  • Has nuclear weapons
58
Q

What are some threats to India’s rise?

A
  • Still suffers from poverty and illiteracy in much of the population.
  • Less interested than China in projecting military power.
59
Q

Define WAR

A

War is a condition of armed conflict between two or more parties, usually states. It is a continuation of politics by other means.

60
Q

Why does war occur?

A
  • Human nature means humans have a lust for power
  • Differences between democracy, autocracy, dictatorships etc.
  • Structural pressures lead to the security dilemma
  • It is a proven method of getting other states to do what you want.
61
Q

In what ways will China’s rise lead to conflict/instability?

A
  • Has the potential to challenge the USA
  • Largest population and army in the world
  • Transition of hegemonic power is never peaceful
  • There is no guarantee that China’s economy will continue to rise smoothly
62
Q

In what ways will China’s rise be peaceful?

A
  • They do not try to project power, rather they try to maintain their own economic successes.
  • Globalisation makes interaction between states easier
  • Soft power makes them more attractive overall
  • They may put economic roles ahead of strategic ones (demonstrated by their current foreign policy)
63
Q

How is the EU economically powerful?

A
  • World’s largest trading bloc
  • The Euro is the second world currency behind the dollar
  • GDP per person is $34,248
  • Population of around 511.5 million people
64
Q

How is the EU economically weak?

A
  • Damaged by the 2008 financial crash
  • Introduction of weaker economies in 2004 and 2007 distilled the overall influence of the economy
  • Growth has slowed/stagnated
65
Q

How is the EU militarily powerful?

A

It isn’t.

Some EU members are militarily strong (UK or France as they are both nuclear powers and part of the P5). Together the EU is weak.

66
Q

How is the EU powerful in terms of structural power?

A
  • The only non state to be represented in a number of international organisations (G8, G20, WTO)
  • Sets the agenda for who can join and encourage democracy and liberal principles for its members
67
Q

How is the EU weak in terms of structural power?

A
  • The EU has a lot of intergovernmental organisations, which weaken its ability to act as a single entity.
  • Brexit may further impact on both structural and soft power of the EU
68
Q

Why has soft power become more important during recent years?

A
  • Globalisation - hard power is now seen as less legitimate
  • The War on Terror - governments needed to win the hearts and minds of the public. Also demonstrated the limits of hard power and showed that the USA’s soft power was damaged by its continued violations of human rights.
  • Economic crisis - hard power is expensive, particularly during the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis
  • Fewer interstate wars lead to a decrease in the significance in hard power, linked to the increasing number of new wars and wars of identity.
69
Q

What are the possible implications of unipolarity?

A
  1. Brings peace and stability - hegemonic stability theory implies that a hegemonic power is necessary to ensure peace - (if there is a benign hegemon). May act as a world police and help to settle disputes more easily.
  2. Brings tension and instability - if there is a malign hegemon. There is no equal force to check their power and alliances formed to challenge hegemonic power may further threaten peace through hegemonic transition theory. ‘Absolute power corrupts absolutely’.
    EXAMPLE: USA during the War on Terror
  3. Effect on the international institutions
    They are either ignored or become a tool of the hegemon, used to enforce their power.
    EXAMPLE: The USA dominates the global financial institutions the WB, WTO and IMF.
70
Q

What are possible implications of bipolarity?

A
  1. Relative stability (realist view) - relative equilibrium between the two competing powers brings peace and stability. States will not go to war as the costs to them will be just as high as the costs to their enemies.
    - Fewer states allows better communication. (direct phone line from America to Russia after 1962).
    EXAMPLE: In the Cold War this was demonstrated by MAD and the reluctance to use nuclear weapons due to second strike capability.
  2. Perpetual risk of war (liberal view) - breeds tension and hostility. Intensifies the security dilemma. During the Cold War the USA and USSR came close to war many times.
    EXAMPLE: Berlin Blockade/Airlift (1948), Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), introduction of the SDI by Ronald Reagan in 1983.
  3. International institutions become ineffective. In the UN, both states have a veto and can veto each others decisions. In the Cold War, economic institutions (WB, WTO, IMF) essentially became useless because the USSR did not recognise them as they promoted capitalist ideals.
71
Q

What was the SDI Initiative?

A

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposed missile defence system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons (mainly from Russia). Based in the atmosphere, it essentially weaponized space.

72
Q

Explain Joseph Nye’s idea of the ‘three dimensional chessboard’.

A

It is the idea that conclusions as to what the world’s power distribution is depends on the factors that are taken into account.
For example:
Military - unipolar (USA)
Economic - multipolar
Political/structural - non polar (non state actors as well as states means that power is diffused).
Good for conclusion on essay on polarity.

73
Q

Define HEGEMONIC STABILITY THEORY

A

Hegemonic stability theory is the idea that a dominant military and economic power is necessary to ensure the stability and prosperity in a liberal world economy. Accepted by realists and many neoliberals (Kindleberger 1973; Gilpin 1987).

74
Q

What are the implications of multipolarity?

A

Realists argue that multipolarity leads to instability (anarchical multipolarity). More states have power, leading to disagreements and miscommunications.
EXAMPLE: before the outbreak of World War One.

Liberals maintain that it encourages multilateralism and therefore brings peace due to the greater division (and diffusion) and global power.

International institutions are empowered - states need them as they provide a forum for discussing global issues.

75
Q

Why does hard power still remain important?

A
  • Soft power is practically useless without the enforcement of hard power alongside it.
  • Realists argue that ‘war is endless’ and therefore the only way that states can get what they want and ensure their security is through war.
  • New security challenges have emerged (e.g. terrorism) that cannot be tackled through non-military power alone.
  • Hard power has been increasingly used for ethical purposes, such as humanitarian intervention.

A level Politics Unit 3 (4 decks)

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