Women ('50s/'60s) + Society ('60s) Flashcards
Women after the war
By ‘47, nearly 2 million women had left work and women had postponed having children during the war so there was natural migration of women back to the home to start families
But 66% of women wanted to continue working after the war
What % of women returned to work after having children and what was the argument against this?
10% in 1931
21% in 1951
47% in 1971
Women spent 1/3 of their adult life child-bearing and then returned to work
Psychologists said that infants deprived of full-time maternal care would be psychologically damaged but by ’60s these ideas were criticised
Women and equal pay
London County Council agreed to introduce equal pay for women in ‘common classes’ of teaching, nursing and clerical workers
This was gradually extended between 1954+1962
Dagenham strikes
138 female car mechanics demanded recognition as skilled workers and in turn, a pay increase
Gained significant media coverage, forced Ford to offer a rate for women that was in 8% of the male rate
TUs in the ’50s
Female TU membership had fallen in the post-war years and by the ’50s unions were resorting to fashion shows to try and recruit female members
What was the National Insurance Act?
1945, based on ‘equal but different’ principal
Beveridge wrote that married women couldn’t expect to regard paid work in the same way as a man, thus enforcing some kind of dependency within women
What were Family Allowances?
Life-long work of Eleanor Rathbone which was translated into law in ‘46
Initially to be paid to the husband until feminist voices shouted this down in parliament and then it was paid to the mother
Women and education
Tripartite system designed with boys in mind and the only option for girls at technical school was typing + shorthand Said that grammar schools were spending over 12s on boys but only 8s on girls Evans describes girls' Grammar schools as enforcing 'well-behaved middle class women who knows how to defeat to and respect the authority of men'
Women and fashion
’40s women looked to cinema for escapism as rationing carried on long after the war
by ’50s women could copy styles of Hollywood women like Marilyn Monroe
Shift to sexier images of women in ’50s and all these women were white and glamorous, enforcing racism
Marriage in the 50s
Some thought that men were taking a much more active role in the relationship and looking after kids more
More say that men saw marriage as a labour and sexual contract and that society undermined the position of the housewife and this wasn’t compensated with economic activity outside the house
Marriage Guidance Council
Founded just before the war, encourage couples to seek advice if marriage wasn’t working, inc achieving a more rewarding sexual life
Kinsey reports
‘48 and ‘53 and had matter-of-fact descriptions of sexual behaviour which demystified sex and prompted slow liberalisation of attitudes towards the subject
The teenager
Adolescent wages were rising two as fast as adults and their disposable income meant they became a prime market in clothes, cosmetics etc
After previous generation growing up through he war, this generation was much happier, self-aware and self-centred
Wilson claims that ‘for girls, their sexuality was a crime’
Did women feel like a sexual revolution was taking place?
Many said it was happening just over there i.e to other places but not here suggesting that notation of ‘swinging sixties’ was just a myth
When was the pill introduced?
‘61 and by ‘64 half a million women were on the pill, contraception was gradually becoming available to unmarried women
Women quickly realised that if they were planning to marry then they could get the pill, it gave them more control over their bodies
What were the consequences of the pill?
It posed health risks for some groups and made sex a recreational activity which enabled casual intercourse without fear of consequence
However, also used to pressure them into sexual encounters
When did abortion become legal?
1967 as long as the consent of 2 doctors was given and if there was either a serious mental or physical risk to the mother’s health or that there was a high chance the baby would be born with severe abnormalities
Abortion rates rose dramatically, 5 million by end of ’60s
What did the Divorce Reform Act mean?
1969 removed ‘matrimonial offence’ or moral blame that had to be allocated and legalised idea of ‘irreconcilable breakdown of marriage’
Wolfenden Report
1957, liberalised the regulation of male homosexuality but lesbianism remained invisible
What was the Life Peerages Act
‘57 and allowed creation of both male and female life peers
Woman and CND
Were against New Right and questioned the Cold War
emphasised banning the nuclear bomb after reading of effects of radiation
Women and race
Afro-Caribbean population increased and so did racism
Several Afro-Caribbean women started to organise their communities e.g Claudia Jones who had been deported to UK from US for setting up communities in Harlem
1960s a ‘permissive society’?
Term from Philip Larkin who saw it as a time of sexual liberation, there was a change in private and public morals as well as a new kind of openness
Some saw this as a negative effect of Labour govt. passing liberalising legislation
What % of births were illegitimate?
- 8% in 1960
8. 2% in 1970
Who was Mary Whitehouse?
Moral campaigner who was calling for extensive censorship, particularly that of BBC
‘64 began ‘Clean up TV’ campaign and attracted considerable public support
Ultimately though she failed to affect the programmed BBC was showing
The media
Media in general had unshackled
First teen magazines appeared, growing no. of uncensored novels and previously taboo subjects were being discussed in books, radio + TV
Drugs in the ’60s
In first half of ’60s, cocaine and heroin addiction became 10x more common
Alcohol, tobacco and caffeine were used more than illegal substances so perhaps the drug issue was exaggerated
Dangerous Drugs Act
1967, made it illegal to possess drugs such as cannabis and cocaine
Wooton Report
1968, a year after Dangerous Drugs Act and suggested legalising ‘soft’ drugs e.g cannabis but by this time the liberal Roy Jenkins was no longer Home Secretary and his successor Callaghan rejected the report’s findings + increased max sentence for supplying drugs to 14 years
Was there a real change or was is exaggerated over time?
According to surveys, most ppl at the time were virgins when they got married or married their first and only sexual partner
Suggested that Jenkins’ liberal reforms only opened the way to change but many people’s attitudes didn’t change
Why was there a rise in youth culture in the ’60s?
Generally, a rise in living standards due to ‘affluent society’ of the ’50s, education was more widespread to working classes, growth in leisure time that previous generations hadn’t experienced
Combining this, it created a culture that will question the social norms and be ready to fight for the right to choice
Fashion in the ’60s
For a short time, London was regarded as the fashion capital of the world
Shift from stuffy ‘sunday best’ acceptable to wear the same clothes to work as you would in the evening
Women felt they could wear trousers and men wore satins, velvets and bright colours too
Fashion becoming more extreme not always going down well with the older generations
Music in the ’60s
Pirate radio born in response to refusal of mainstream radio such as BBC and played new rock and pop music
Radio Caroline and and Radio London were unlicensed stations payed for by entrepreneurs, weren’t illegal
‘67 BBC radio 1 launched to keep up with the times
Top Of The Pops launched in ‘64 bringing pop music to screens and plastic record players were made
Subcultures in the ’60s
Skinheads- shaven heads
Braces and Dr Martens had evolved from ’50s
Hippie culture took off, rejecting social convention ‘Flower power’
Leisure time in the ’60s
Increased due to less ppl working on Saturdays
TV accounted for 23% of free time by ‘69
DIY was catching on so was gardening
Cooking and knitting were replaced with tech
Car ownership in the ’60s
Increased and allowed ppl freedom due to them being cheaper
Public transport suffered
1955, 39% of journeys made by car
1974, 77% of journeys made by car
Holidays in ’50s and ’70s
1951- 2 million holidays abroad
1971- 7 million holidays abroad
Airlines
British Airways’ ‘64, flight still expensive and was mainly middle classes who considered holidaying abroad
package holidays in their early development
Also meant injection of continental flavour into Britain
TV in the ’60s
Became available up and down the country and replaced cinema as a means of entertainment
1950- 340,000 had TVs
1975- 17.7 million had T
Hugh Greene
Director-General of the BBC with agenda to transform it
He revised the previously strict rules on nudity and swearing and introduced new style of news presentation
ITV
Established itself as alternative to BBC
Relied on income from advertising which expanded rapidly as they were able to broadcast products into people’s homes
When was BBC 2 launched?
1964, allowing BBC 1 to be more populist
BBC 2 became the first channel to regularly broadcast regular colour programmes
How were radios promoted?
Development of cheap portable radios as well as spread of car radios
Also helped by intro of long-life batteries and earphones
Appealed to teens more as they could now listen to different music to their parents
Print media
Newspaper and magazines survived by adapting
The Sun was launched in ‘64 and maintained high membership by reflecting pop culture
Scientific developments in the ’60s
Concorde introduced in ‘69, relied heavily on govt. subsidies
Post Office Tower opened in London to improve telecommunications and was Britain’s tallest building
Reduction in censorship
Theatrical censorship abolished in ‘68 due to private members bill and supported by Roy Jenkins
Ended jurisdiction of Lord Chamberlain’s Office
Followed a no. of disputes with Royal Court Theatre
Film censorship remained under control of British Board of Film Censors
When was the abolition of Capital Punishment?
1965
When was the First Race Relations Act?
1965
When was the Abortion Act?
1967
When was the Sexual Offences Act?
1967
When was the Second Race Relations Act?
1968
What did the Race Relations Act include?
1965, prohibited racial discrimination in public and work places, made incitement to racial hatred an offence, set up Race Relations Board with power to investigate racial discrimination
What happened at the same time as the Second Race Relations Act?
Same year that Enoch Powell made ‘Rivers of Blood’ speech in which he instilled national fear and outrage about immigration
Divided much public opinion and ensured immigration was at the forefront of the political agenda
What was the Commonwealth Immigration Act?
Felt need to restrict no. of immigrants entering the country
Meant only immigrants who already had family in the country could move to the UK
If good racial relations was to be achieved, it was vital to restrict immigration as well as clamping down on discrimination
What was included in the Sexual Offences Act?
‘67 made it legal for consenting men over 21 to engage in homosexual acts
Criticised as not going far enough, still a landmark in shifting attitudes
What was included in the abolition of the death penalty?
‘69
Had been experimentally suspended 5 years earlier and Callaghan suspended it altogether
Began with Butler in ‘57 where he ended death penalty in all cases except rare murder cases
Open University
- set up to allow previously unqualified students to gain degree qualifications by studying radio and tv broadcasts
Improved access to higher edcuation
Wilson said it was his biggest success of his ‘64-70 govt.
Who was Roy Jenkins?
Home Secretary from ‘65-‘67
Isn’t the only reason for these developments but certainly played a large role
Why was the education system reformed?
Tripartite system was being crtiticised as it clearly hadn’t created school of equal status, grammar schools were dominated by middle classes and Secondary modern school pupils were seen as failures from age 11
Comprehensive schools
Meant no 11+ and no division, all students would have the same opportunities and learn at their own pace
By ‘64, 10% of pupils were in comprehensive schools
Who was Tony Crosland?
Minister of Education and issued Circular 10/65 to all local authorities requesting that all LEA’s convert to comprehensive schools
