Wk 4 - Pedagogy

Question 1

Berl and Hewlett’s (2015) study into cross-cultural overimitation shows…(x1)
Which suggests that…(x2)
But it…(x1)

Answer 1

Variation in the level of overimitation in AKA children and adults, and Ngandu kids groups
Issues of null results – when experiments set up to find something in particular
Caution needed with claims of universality, but they may just be an exception that proves the rule…
Doesn’t dismiss species specific nature of overimitation

Question 2

What is the survival value of overimitation? (x2)
But it possibly comes at a cost to…(x1)
Leading to the conclusion that…(x1)

Answer 2

Copying actions that coincide with your survival increase chances of mine, except at extreme end - costs of not improving
Survival increases in group – so value in bonding through social learning
Innovation - but constant innovating would leave total mess
Perhaps most adaptive to mostly copy, with occasional innovator along the way

Question 3

Herman et al (2007) concluded that in order for human children to function effectively…(x2)

Answer 3

In the cultural world of their birth, they must learn to use artefacts/tools, and participate in cultural activities,
Which require some special social-cognitive skills

Question 4

Research has shown that a stable group of hens, with time to sort themselves into pecking order…(x1)
Which shows us the survival value of…(x1)

Answer 4

Lay more eggs than those in coops with constantly changing members
Deferring and punishing a lack of deference

Question 5

Herrman et al (2007) posit that human adults have all kinds of…(x1)
But that this is due to…(x1)
Concluding that…(x1)

Answer 5

Cognitive skills not possessed by other primates
Children’s early emerging, specialized skills for absorbing the accumulated practices and knowledge of their social group
Social-cultural cognition of childhood is ‘bootstrap’ for later complex human cognition

Question 6

Herrman et al (2007) studied the differences in cognitions of children, chimps and orangutans, comnparing/findings…(x3)
Concluding that…(x1)

Answer 6

Object permanence: when they understand that although hidden from view, is still where it was - chimps perform as well as kids do
Tool properties: chimp knows to pull on the cloth connected to the banana, kids too
Social learning: kids do straight imitation for immediate goal attainment, chimps use emulation instead
Diff is in social, not physical domains - this is the divide between us and other species

Question 7

Over and Carpenter (2009) studied the effects of ostracism on overimitation in a study involving…(x5)
Finding…(x1)
Which is not explicable through…(x1)

Answer 7

5-6 yo kids
Stimuli used to show social ostracism - computer generated shapes in ‘room’ ignoring another shape
Control video used fly instead of the ostracised shape - very hard to find stimulus that don’t elicit reaction
Half kids saw ostracism prime, half the control,
Then did imitation tasks - complex sequence of 8 actions demonstrated by experimenter
Ostracism condition responded to unease felt by copying with higher fidelity
Views of overimitation as purely functional

Question 8

Rendell et al (2010) conducted a study that highlighted the social benefits of copying, involving…(x4)
Finding… (x1)

Answer 8

Computer tournament, economic incentive
Ps devise strategy/rules that specified when organism should perform one of three moves in the game -
Innovate, observe, exploit – something new, copy someone else, or use previous knowledge (only this option could give payoff)
Simulated environment of ‘restless multi-armed bandit’ with 100 possible action with associated pay-offs
Groups who did best were ones that emphasised social learning - copying what others did and built it into repertoire

Question 9

Henrich and Boyd (1998) looked at how differing levels of conformity play out, based on our constant weighing of costs and benefits, predicting that…(x3)

Answer 9

It will occur if lots of people have different ideas, and cost of copying is low
As accuracy of info decreases, conformity increases - when odds of solving it yourself are low, then costs of copying are also low
Reliance on conformity decreases if environment shifts substantially, and increases after immigration

Question 10

Chudek et al (013) conducted study into prestige (status) based cultural learning, involving…(x3)
Finding…(x2)
Concluding that…(x1)

Answer 10

Individual does something, watched by two people who deliberately show back to fourth person doing same task
Then a series of tasks, ie food preference and tests
If someone is observed by others, they gain a certain prestige – are worth attending to
If I see that, and it’s based on artefacts, then when subsequently given artefact task, I’ll copy that person
But doesn’t have same impacts on food choices, and vice versa
Prestige is subject-specific

Question 11

Three potential avenues of copying…

Answer 11

Copy the majority – conformity
Copy high-status individuals – prestige
Copy what you are taught – pedagogy

Question 12

Car and Hauser (1992) assert that teaching…(x3)

Answer 12

Occurs only in the presence of a naive observer
Is costly and does not provide any immediate benefit for the teacher
Facilitates knowledge acquisition or skill learning in the observer

Question 13

Regarding pedagogy, Gergely and Csibra argue that…(x3)

Answer 13

Capacity to imitate observed behaviours of conspecifics has evolved as uniquely human function,
As a mechanism recruited, directed, and constrained by pedagogy -
A specialised human-specific cognitive system dedicated to cultural learning.

Question 14

Gergely and Csibra have argued that the increasing cognitive opacity of artefacts and manufacture may have…(x1)
Meaning that…(x1)

Answer 14

Provided selective pressure for new type of social learning mechanism - pedagogy
We’ve vastly increased number of artefacts used, and also the number that could not be figured out without demonstration, or manufactured in ways we don’t understand

Question 15

Gergely and Csibra argue for which four steps in effective human pedagogy?

Answer 15

Early sensitivity to cues indicating teaching contexts: When someone is about to teach, we recognise this early in the demonstration – gaining your gaze etc
Interpret directional cues as identifying the referents about which new information will be provided – we’ve evolved to assume that what were being shown is relevant/important
Expect the ‘teacher’ to manifest relevant and new information about the referent: Can’t teach what we already know
Ready to fast-map information: Not just receptive, but ready to take it in very quickly

Question 16

Evidence of teaching in other animals? Describe the meerkat evidence (x3)

Answer 16

Adults bring scorpions in various states to young,
Building up to a live scorpion, originally thought to be teaching…
But, is just biological disposition - when kid calls at a certain pitch, scorpion will be brought in particular state, so no evidence of teaching

Question 17

Bonawitz et al (2011) studies the effects of pedagogy on children, in study involving…(x6)

Answer 17

4-6 yo, four conditions:
Pedagogical: teaching environment, deliberate demonstration, slides
Naïve: E performs task as if by accident
Interrupted: E disrupts the flow
Baseline: just shows toy and puts it down
Looking at what kids discovered, rather than rates of imitation

Question 18

Bonawitz et al (2011) studied the effects of pedagogy on children, in study finding..(x2)
Concluding that…(x1)

Answer 18

Pedagogical condition played with toy for less time than children in other conditions – those taught didn’t go on to explore further uses of toy
Pedagogical condition also performed fewer different kinds of actions on the toy – therefor found fewer uses
Teaching limits opportunities for discovery and exploration

Question 19

It can be argued that cultural activities are subject to cognitive opacity in that…(x1)
Therefor…(x1)

Answer 19

They are often not transparent as to either their knowledge-base or their function,
Pedagogy is necessary for efficient and fast transmission of such culturally relevant information