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Biology GCSE > WINDOW 2 health & disease > Flashcards

WINDOW 2 health & disease Flashcards

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1
Q

health

A

according to the WHO (world health organisation)

a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not just the absence of disease and infirmity

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2
Q

disease

A

a condition where part of an organism doesn’t function properly

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3
Q

communicable and what are they cause by

A

can be spread between individuals, caused by a pathogen

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4
Q

non communicable

A

can’t be transmitted between individuals

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5
Q

ebola (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

virus
haemorrhagic fever
spread via bodily fluids
reduced by isolation of individuals and sterilisation of areas

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6
Q

chalara ash dieback (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

fungus
leaf loss and bark lesions
carried through air by wind or when infected tree is moved
reduced transmission by removing young infected trees, replanting with a different species and restricting movement of ash trees

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7
Q

malaria (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

protist
red blood cell damage and liver damage
transmitted by mosquitoes, which act as vectors
transmission can be reduced by using mosquito nets and insect repellent

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8
Q

cholera (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

bacterium (vibrio cholerae)
diarrhoea
spread by contaminated water sources
reduced by ensuring access to clean water

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9
Q

tuberculosis (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

bacterium (mycobacterium tuberculosis)
coughing and lung damage
spread via air when individuals cough
reduced by avoiding public spaces, practicing good hygiene and sleeping alone in a well ventilated home

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10
Q

stomach ulcers (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

bacterium (helicobacter pylori)
stomach pain, vomiting and nausea
spread via oral transmission (eating or drinking)
reduced by access to clean water and hygienic living conditions

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11
Q

chlamydia (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

bacterium
no symptoms but can cause infertility
transmitted by bodily fluids
reduced by wearing a condom, screening individuals for treatment or avoiding sexual contact

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12
Q

HIV (type of pathogen, symptoms, transmission method, method of reduction)

A

virus
kills white bloods cells, causing immune system to deteriorate and eventually fail , and leading to AIDS
transmitted by infected bodily fluids
reduced by wearing a condom, not sharing needles and medication

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13
Q

virus

A

one or more strands of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat/capsid
viruses have to infect living cells to reproduce

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14
Q

what are the two virus pathways/life cycles

A

lytic pathway

lysogenic pathway

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15
Q

what happens in the lytic pathway (4)

A

1) virus attaches to host cell and genetic material is injected
2) proteins and enzymes in host cell are used to reproduce genetic material and make new viral components
3) virus components assemble
4) host cell lyses (bursts) releasing the new viruses which infect more cells

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16
Q

what happens in the lysogenic pathway (4)

A

1) the virus attaches to the host cell and genetic material is injected
2) injected genetic material is incorporated into the host cell’s genome
3) the viral genetic material is replicated each time the host cell is replicated, but the virus remains dormant
4) eventually, a trigger causes the genetic material to leave the genome and enter the LYTIC pathway

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17
Q

3 examples of physical barriers in the human body

A
  • skin
  • hairs and mucus in nose trap particles potentially containing pathogens
  • cells in trachea and bronchi produce mucus trapping particles, the mucus is then wafted by cilia cells to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed
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18
Q

2 examples of chemical barriers in the human body

A
  • stomach produced hydrochloric acid (very strong acid) that kills pathogens
  • eyes produce lysozyme chemicals which kill bacteria on the eye’s surface
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19
Q

describe the response of the immune system to a pathogen (5)

A
  • white blood cells look for pathogens
  • B-lymphocytes find an antigen on a pathogen
  • B-lymphocytes start to produce antibodies
  • antibodies bind to the pathogen so that it can be found and destroyed
  • antibodies are quickly reproduced - they flow around the body looking for all similar pathogens
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20
Q

what is the role of memory lymphocytes

A

when a new pathogen first enters the body, our immune response is slow as there aren’t many B-lymphocytes available to make the antibody required to match the antigen
as well as antibodies being produced, memory lymphocytes are made that remain and recognise an antigen
this means that the person has the ability to quickly respond to a 2nd infection more strongly (secondary immune response)

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21
Q

immunisation

A

injecting dead or inactive pathogens into the body

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22
Q

how does immunisation give the patient immunity (3)

A

the pathogens injected contain antigens which causes the body to make specific antibodies to destroy them
memory lymphocyte production is triggered
if live pathogens then enter the body, there are already memory lymphocytes present to trigger a secondary immune response

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23
Q

2 advantages of immunisation

A
  • epidemics can be prevented if a large percentage of the population is immunised
  • some diseases have been virtually wiped out due to immunisation programs
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24
Q

2 disadvantages of immunisation

A
  • doesn’t always work

- you can have a bad reaction to a vaccine, although this is rare

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25
Q

herd immunity (may not be on test but seems to come up??)

A

when the majority of the population are vaccinated and healthy against a specific disease, a few are not vaccinated but well
a few are not vaccinated against the disease, and they are ill and contagious
the large number of vaccinated individuals gives protection

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26
Q

monoclonal antibodies

A

artificially created identical copies of a specific type of antibody

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27
Q

how do you make monoclonal antibodies (3)

A

fuse a mouse B-lymphocyte with a myeloma cell (tumour cell) to form a hybridoma
the hybridoma can be cloned to give lots of identical cells
these cells then divide quickly to produce the same antibodies which can be collected and purified

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28
Q

why do we use tumour cells to make monoclonal antibodies

A

lymphocytes don’t divide easily but tumour cells do

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29
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used in pregnancy tests (structure of a test)

A

the hormone HCG is only produced during pregnancy

  • the part of the pregnancy test stick you urinate on has antibodies FOR the hormone with blue beads attached
  • the test strip (the other end of the stick) thee are more antibodies stuck down
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30
Q

how does a pregnancy test work if you are pregnant

A

the hormones bind to the antibodies on the beads
as urine moves along the stick, it carries the hormone and the beads
the beads and hormone bind to the antibodies on the test strip so the strip turns blue

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31
Q

how does a pregnancy test work if you are not pregnant

A

the blue beads are carried along but they have nothing to stick to so the test strip won’t turn blue

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32
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies be used to find blood clots

A

monoclonal antibodies have been developed to bind to the proteins in the blood clot
a radioactive element is attached so that a camera sensitive to radiation can locate the clot
potentially harmful blood clots can be removed before they harm the patient

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33
Q

tumour markers

A

proteins found on cancer cell membranes that aren’t normally found on normal body cells

34
Q

how can cancer be diagnosed using monoclonalantibodies

A

(similar to identification of blood clots)
antibodies are labelled with a radioactive element and given to the patient through a drip
when antibodies encounter cancer cells they bind together
image taken with camera sensitive to radiation (eg. gamma camera) so that cancer cells appear as a bright spot
doctors can observe size, location and where the cancer is spreading to

35
Q

how can cancer be treated using monoclonal antibodies

A

an anti-cancer drug is attached to the antibodies and given to the patient through a drip
the drug kills the cancer cells but not any normal body cells near the tumour

36
Q

two advantages of cancer treatment with monoclonal antibodies

A

other cancer treatments damage nearby cells

there are fewer side effects for this kind of treatment

37
Q

what do antibiotics do

A

inhibit processes in bacterial cells without damaging the host organism

38
Q

why don’t antibiotics work on viruses

A

viruses are hard to treat without damaging the body’s cells

39
Q

2 stages of drug development

A

pre-clinical testing

clinical testing

40
Q

what happens in pre-clinical testing (2)

A

drugs are tested on human tissues and cells in a lab

drugs are then tested on animals to determine DOSAGE and TOXICITY

41
Q

what happens in clinical testing (4)

A

drug is tested in a clinical trial to ensure no harmful effects on healthy people
the drug is THEN tested on people suffering to find the OPTIMUM dose
they are put into two groups and perform a blind or double blind trial
if all tests are met, the drug needs to be approved by a medical agency

42
Q

what are risk factors linked to

A

an increase in the likelihood of developing a disease

43
Q

lifestyle factors

A

risk factors which are a choice

44
Q

how does smoking, acting as a lifestyle factor, increase risk of cardiovascular disease

A

nicotine
⮞ increases heart rate increasing blood pressure
⮞ high BP damages artery walls leading to a build up of fatty deposits, these restrict blood flow

increased risk of blood clots from smoking

restricting or blocking blood flow (from fatty deposit build up or blood clots) increases the chance of a heart attack or stroke

45
Q

what are 4 potential lifestyle factors

A

smoking
poor diet
drinking too much alcohol
not getting enough exercise

46
Q

malnutrition is caused by

A

a diet with too many/ few nutrients

47
Q

risk of obesity is increased by

A

not doing enough exercise

having a diet high in fat and sugar

48
Q

drinking too much alcohol increases the chance of

A

developing liver disease/liver cirrhosis

49
Q

effects of non-communicable diseases

A

this puts pressure on the resources of local hospitals
effects on a country’s economy
overall effects on country’s development

50
Q

overall effects of NCDs on country’s development

A

NCDs are common - high cost and occurrence can hold back a country’s development

51
Q

effects of NCDs on a country’s economy

A

NCDs are costly for the NHS

sometimes if someone has an NCD they are unable to work which can negatively affect the economy too

52
Q

how can NCDs place pressure on the resources of local hospitals

A

areas with high levels of obesity or excess liver consumption, means high occurrence of particular NCDs

53
Q

what is BMI used for

A

used as a guide to decide if someone is underweight, normal, overweight or obese

54
Q

BMI (formula)

A

BMI = mass / height^2 (in metres)

55
Q

waist to hip ratio (formula)

A

waist circumference / hip circumference

56
Q

what is the border for abdominal obesity in terms of waist to hip ratio for men and women

A

men: 1.0
women: 0.85

57
Q

what causes cardiovascular disease

A

too much cholesterol in the blood can cause fatty deposits to build up in the arteries, restricting blood flow
deposits occur in areas with a damaged artery wall (due to high blood pressure)
fatty deposits trigger the formation of blood clots, blocking blood flow

58
Q

what could restricted blood flow cause

A

lack of oxygen to the heart causing a heart attack

lack of oxygen to the brain can cause a stroke

59
Q

what are 4 lifestyle changes that might be suggested if you have CVD

A

⮞ eat a diet low in saturated fat/ a balanced diet
⮞ exercise regularly
⮞ lose weight if necessary
⮞ stop smoking

60
Q

what are 3 potential drugs to treat CVD

A

⮞ statins
⮞ anticoagulants
⮞ antihypertensives

61
Q

what are three potential surgical procedures to treat CVD

A

⮞ stents
⮞ coronary bypass surgery
⮞ donor heart

62
Q

what do statins do

A

reduce the amount of cholesterol in the bloodstream, slwoing down the rate at which fatty deposits form

63
Q

side effects of statins

A

can cause aching muscles or liver damage

64
Q

what do anticoagulants do

A

thins the blood allowing blood to flow through the blood vessels more easily and making blood clots less likely to form

65
Q

side effects of anticoagulants

A

can cause excessive bleeding if in an accident

66
Q

what do antihypertensives do

A

reduce blood pressure, helping to prevent damage to blood vessels

67
Q

side effects of antihypertensives

A

can cause headaches and fainting

68
Q

coronary bypass surgery

A

when a healthy vessel is taken from elsewhere and is used to bypass a blocked section

69
Q

what is a stent

A

tubes inserted inside arteries to keep them open so that blood can pass through to the heart muscles, decreasing the risk of a heart attack

70
Q

disadvantages of using stents (2)

A

an artery can narrow again as stents irritate it, causing scar tissue to grow
patient must take drugs to prevent blood clotting

71
Q

donor heart

A

replacing the whole heart

72
Q

disadvantages of a heart transplant/donor heart (2)

A

a new heart may not always start pumping properly

drugs (immunosuppressants) have to be taken to stop the body from rejecting the foreign heart - these drugs make you more vulnerable to other infections

73
Q

what does an autoclave do

A

uses steam at a high pressure and temperature to kill any microorganisms present

74
Q

what is an inoculating loop used for and how is it sterilised

A

used to transfer bacteria

loop should be sterilised by passing though a hot flame to kill an unwanted microorganisms

75
Q

why should a Petri dish have a lid on it

A

to stop microorganisms in the air from getting in

76
Q

how should liquid bacterial cultures be kept

A

should be kept in a culture vial with a lid

the lid should only be removed briefly when transferring bacteria, to prevent other microbes from getting in

77
Q

how do you prepare the agar plates (core practical) (6)

A

1) petri dishes and agar gel sterilised in autoclave to kill bacteria present
2) pour sterile agar plates and all to set
3) using a sterile pipette, add a few drops of the microorganism solution to the agar to close the lid ; place the pipette in disinfectant
4) use a sterile spreader to spread microorganism solution
5) label and invert plate so unwanted additional bacteria can’t get in and to stop drops of condensation falling onto the agar
6) incubate at a maximum of 25°C to reduce potential growth of harmful microorganisms

78
Q

investigating the effect of antiseptics and antibiotics on cultures of bacteria (method)

A

1) soak filter paper discs in different types of antibiotics using either different solutions of different concentrations of the solution
2) place paper discs onto an agar plate that has an even covering of bacteria, leaving some space between discs ; use a control
3) antibiotics should diffuse into the agar jelly - resistant bacteria won’t be affects but non-resistant strains will die, this leaves a clear area around the disc known as an inhibition zone
4) leave the plate for 48 hours at 25°C
5) the more effective the antibiotic is against the bacteria, the larger the inhibition zone will be

79
Q

why should you use a control disc?

A

so that you can be sure that any difference in growth around discs is due to the effect of the antibiotic alone

80
Q

area (formula)

A

π r²

Biology GCSE (8 decks)

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