Why was it difficult for black Americans to gain equal rights in the USA in the 1950's and 1960's?

Question 1

Brown vs Topeka Board of Education, 1954

Answer 1

• In 1952, 20 Us states had segregated public schools.
• Linda Brown had to walk 20 blocks to her school in Topeka, Kansas, even though there was a school for white pupils just a few blocks from her home.
• In 1952, her father, Oliver Brown, with the help of the NAACP, took the Board of Education to court.
• After losing the case in the status courts, the NAACP took the case to the Supreme Court.
• In May 1954, the Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public schools went against the US constitution. However, the Supreme Court had no power to impose its decision and many southern states continued to ignore the ruling.

Question 2

Little Rock Central High School, Arkansas, 1957

Answer 2

• In September 1957, 9 African American students led by Elizabeth Eckford attempted to enter the white-only Central High School in Little Rock.
• The Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, surrounded the school with National Guardsmen to prevent the 9 students from entering.
• President Eisenhower responded by sending 1000 federal troops to protect the students.
• 8 of the 9 students graduated at the end of the year.
• Important as it showed the President could and would enforce court orders with federal troops and brought publicity to the injustices of segregation.
• However, by 1964, fewer than 2% of African-American children attended multi-racial schools in the southern states.

Question 3

James Meredith and Mississippi University, 1962

Answer 3

• In June 1962, the Supreme Court upheld a federal court decision to force Mississippi University to accept the black student James Meredith.
• When Meredith arrived to register for admission he was prevented from doing so by the Governor of Mississippi.
• Riots broke out and President Kennedy sent in 2000 troops to restore order.
• 300 soldiers had to remain on the university campus to protect Meredith until he graduated with his degree three years later.

Question 4

The Montgomery bus boycott, 1955-56

Answer 4

• The local law stated that African-Americans had to sit on the back seats of buses and had to give them up if white people wanted them.
• On 1st Dec 1955 Rosa Parks, an NAACP activist, refused to give up her seat and was arrested and convicted.
• Local civil rights activists set up the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA), led by the reverend Dr Martin Luther King, a young baptist minister. The group organised a boycott: they deliberately stopped using the buses, arranging private transport for people.
• Civil Rights lawyers fought Rosa Park’s case in court and in December 1956, the Supreme Court declared Montgomery bus laws illegal. The bus company gave in

Question 5

Non-violent direct protest gathers pace - sit-ins

Answer 5

• In the winter of 1959-60, civil rights group stepped up their non-violent campaigns. They organised marches, demonstrations and boycotts to end segregation in public places.
• In February 1960, in Greensboro, North Carolina, the sit-in protests began at the lunch counter in the F.W. Woolworth store.
• By August 1961, the sit-ins in restaurants, libraries and movie theatres had attracted over 70,000 participants and resulted in over 3000 arrests.

Question 6

The freedom rides

Answer 6

• Segregation still existed on interstate buses and in May 1961, members of the Congress Racial Equality (CORE) began a form of direct protest in the southern states known as the ‘freedom rides’.
• They deliberately rode on buses on companies that were ignoring laws banning segregation. The first freedom rides began in Washington DC on 4 May 1961 with the plan of travelling down to New Orleans.
• At Anniston, Alabama, a bus was attacked and burned. In Montgomery, white racists beat up several freedom riders. At Birmingham, there was no police protection for the freedom riders and they were attacked by an angry mob.
• The freedom riders continued, against much violence, throughout the summer. By September, 70,000 students had taken part and 3600 had been arrested.
• The Attorney General, Robert Kennedy, was able to get the Interstate Commerce Committee to end segregation in all bus and rail stations and airports.

Question 7

The role and significance of Martin Luther King

Answer 7

• King’s ideas were based on non-violence civil disobedience. He thought violence was wrong and favoured sit-ins, boycotts, freedom rides and marches as a way of protesting.
• Birmingham march 1963. The SCLC challenged the city of Birmingham’s decision to close its public recreation facilities in order to avoid desegregation. The protesters faced water canons, dogs and baton charges. King was arrested and sent to jail. President Kennedy sent in troops and Birmingham was forced to desegregate.
• March on Washington, August 1963. On the steps on Lincoln Memorial, King delivered his ‘I have a dream’ speech to a crowd of 250,000. It put pressure on President Kennedy to draft legislation. The civil rights act was passed in 1964.
• Nobel Peace Prize, 1964. This was awarded for King’s work as a peacemaker, promoting non-violence and equal treatment for different races.

Question 8

The role and significance of Malcolm X

Answer 8

• Malcolm Little was a son of an African American baptist preacher who was murdered by white supremacists.
• He rejected Kings’ peaceful methods and believed violence could be justified to secure a separate black nation.
• He was a good public speaker who attracted support from young blacks.
• In 1964, he left the Nation of Islam, after joining in 1962, and formed the Muslim Mosque Inc and the black nationalist Organisation of Afro-American Unity. He encouraged self-esteem of black Americans and his views and ideas became the foundation for the radical movements Black Power and the Black Panthers.
• He was shot dead by three members of the Nation of Islam in Feb 1965.

Question 9

Stokely Carmichael, the Black Power Movement and the Black Panthers

Answer 9

• The Black Power movement emerged out of the anger and frustration expressed by young black Americans over high unemployment and poverty; its leading spokes person was Stokely Carmichael.
• He wanted blacks to have pride in their heritage and adopted the slogan ‘Black is beautiful’.
• In 1968, he joined the Black Panthers, party formed in 1966 by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton; its members wore uniforms and were prepared to use force to achieve their aim of a socialist society.
• In the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, two black athletes, both members of the Black Panthers, used their medal ceremony to wear a single black glove and to give the clenched fist salute - it gave the movement international publicity.