What things develop? Fitting in (self and others)

Question 1

Constructs of self: the body - the Rouge test

Answer 1

Infants pass this test anytime between 18-24 months. Mothers wiped a bit of rouge on the nose of their child and placed them in front of a mirror. Before 15 months, children look at their reflection and see a red spot on their nose but don’t realise it’s theirs.
Preadolescent chimps passes after prolonged exposure, monkeys didn’t.

Question 2

Constructs of self: the body - the viewpoint test

Answer 2

infants are calibrating visual and proprioceptive information from just 3 month.

Question 3

Constructs of self: the body - existential self

Answer 3

Sense of personal existence, uniqueness and autonomy, develops through the child’s interactions with the social and physical world

Question 4

Constructs of self: the body - self awareness

Answer 4

This is me (rouge test) This is my body (viewpoint test) This is the effect my body can have on the rest of the world (shopping cart test, should be passed by 18 months)

Question 5

Constructs of self: the body - representing the body

Answer 5

the sensorimotor homunculus, which is a map along the cerebral cortex of where each part of the body is processed

Question 6

Constructs of self: the body - Representing the body

Answer 6

Children will typically draw others through the tadpole drawings (2.5 years- 4 years old)

Question 7

Constructs of self: the body - Representing the body, Understanding scale

Answer 7

child sees and plays with toys their usual size, but when entering the room later on the toys are much smaller, child doesn’t understand the toys are much smaller so they still try and get in them.

Question 8

Constructs of self: Categorical self

Answer 8

Sex and age are the first social categories incorporated into a toddler’s self concept

Question 9

Self concept meaning

Answer 9

One’s perceptions of one’s unique attributes or traits.

Question 10

Expanding self concept

Answer 10

Middle and late childhood children include other people’s appraisals of them into their self-concept

Question 11

Constructs of self: Gender identity and sexual orientation

Answer 11

Most people are aware of their sexual orientation between middle childhood and early adolescence

Question 12

Constructs of self: gender identity and sexual orientation

Answer 12

gender role socialised behaviours are evident from toddlerhood and increase during primary school, e.g., toy selection, dressing up.
More common for a girl to behave in a masculine way than a boy behaving in a feminine way, could be due to male status.

Question 13

Constructs of self: Sexual orientation in adulthood

Answer 13

Homosexuality in adulthood is strongly predicted by cross sex-types behaviours at childhood, though this is probalistic.

Question 14

Constructs of self: gender identity and sexual orientation, nature

Answer 14

David Reimer case
Born as a boy but socialised and raised as a girl from 22 months
He would refuse to wear dresses and play with dolls
Identifying as David from 14 years old.
He believed in nature: gender is determined genetically at birth.

Question 15

Constructs of self: gender identity and sexual orientation, nurture

Answer 15

Focus on gender role socialisation, linking to the theory of gender neutrality
Developed by John William Money, believing gender identity is learned in childhood

Question 16

Constructs of others: Egocentrism

Answer 16

A state of being unable to see things from anyone’s perspective except your own. Common in younger children and their interactions often reflect this. Piaget’s preoperational stage 2-7 years old.

Question 17

Constructs of others: egocentrism - The broccoli task: Children asked which do they prefer broccoli or pretzels? They say pretzels. Then the research will say “I like broccoli” What would you give me? An the children of 18 months would say pretzels. But by 24 months there is that understanding of other’s desires.

Answer 17

Children asked which they prefer broccoli or pretzels? They say pretzels. Then researcher says “I like broccoli” What would you give me? Children of 18 months would say pretzels. But by 24 months there is that understanding of other’s desires.

Question 18

Construct of others: Egocentrism - three mountains task

Answer 18

Child presented with a landscape scene and asked to describe it from other perspectives. Till aged 7 children have an egocentric view of the world, may be that this task is unrealistic for children.

Question 19

Construct of others: Egocentrism - three policeman task

Answer 19

Asked “where should the boy hide to evade the policeman?” 905 of 3-5 year olds were able to place the boy at the correct location. Understanding another persons perspective.

Question 20

Construct of others: Egocentrism, deceiving others

Answer 20

3 year olds are capable of deception as only 38% told the truth when asked if they peeked under the cloth when researcher left the room. ‘Biscuit hiding trick’ those who helped plan deception, rather than those who just watched, did well. This implies they could consider another person’s perspective to deceive them.

Question 21

Constructs of others: theory of mind

Answer 21

Younger children believe others think and believe the same as them, not understanding people have their own beliefs and behave according to them “Theory of mind”

Question 22

Adolescent egocentrism

Answer 22

Beyond childhood, still need to know people have their own beliefs and not everybody is noticing or thinking about them.

Question 23

Deceptive box task “Theory of mind”

Answer 23

Children around 3 fail to acknowledge their own prior beliefs, e.g., they judge incorrectly that they had initially thought a Smarties tube contained pencils after discovering these to be the actual content.

Question 24

Sally Ann Task: “Theory of mind”

Answer 24

1. Sally has a basket and Ann has a box
2. Sally puts her ball into her box
3. Sally leaves the room with Ann left alone
4. Ann takes the ball from the basket into her box
5. Children asked when Sally comes back where will Sally look for the ball and they will say in the basket.

Question 25

Constructs of others: Different perspectives on theory of mind

Answer 25

• 1. Maturation of general abilities is needed, e.g., working memory
• 2. Contribution of social influences (i.e. nurture) e.g., playful interactions with siblings.
• 3. Development of a specific segmented process related to social understanding. 3-4 years seems to be a switch-like onset. Whereas children with autism fail Sally Ann Test.

Question 26

Social relationships: Family

Answer 26

the primary instrument of socialization, (The process by which children acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviours considered desirable or appropriate by their culture or subculture)

Question 27

Social relationships: Society

Answer 27

Ecological Systems theory( Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005)) states that family relationships relative to child development must be understood as a network of interacting parts or systems in a whole that is itself influenced by wider social and cultural processes

Question 28

Social relationships: Factors affecting family relationships

Answer 28

socio-economic situation, family structure, extended family, divorce, parenting styles, attachment, siblings. 25% of adults of divorced parents experienced social, emotional, or psychological problems compared with 10% of those whose parents remained married. Siblings that were close to each other in childhood are typically close in adulthood

Question 29

Social relationships: Family structures

Answer 29

Single parent family, composed of one parent and (usually her) children. Nuclear family composed of parents and their children. Extended family composed of parents and their children, and relatives

Question 30

Five family functions

Answer 30

Provide, food, clothing, shelter
Encouraging learning
Developing self esteem
Nurturing friendships with peers
Providing harmony and stability

Question 31

Four parenting styles:

Answer 31

Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved.

Question 32

Parenting styles: Uninvolved style

Answer 32

(worst outcomes) Parent characteristics: self-centred, neglectful, pursues self - gratification at expense of child’s welfare, tried to minimise costs of interaction with child. Child characteristics: moody, insecurely attached, aggressive, low self esteem.

Question 33

Parenting styles: Permissive style

Answer 33

Parent characteristics: moderately warm, allows free expression of impulses and desires, does not communicate rules clearly or enforce them. Child characteristics: aggressive, domineering, quick to anger but fast to recover.

Question 34

Parenting styles: Authoritarian style

Answer 34

parent- shows little warmth or positive involvement, does not consider child’s desires or opinions, enforces rules rigidly but does not explain them. Child characteristics: moody, aimless, apprehensive, vulnerable to stress.

Question 35

Parenting styles: Authoritative style:

Answer 35

parent characteristics- warm, involved, responsive, shows support of child’s constructive behaviour, shows displeasure at bad behaviour and confronts child about it. Child characteristics: energetic, friendly child, cheerful, self-controlled and well self reliant.

Question 36

Younger peer relationships: 0-6 months

Answer 36

touches and looks at another infant, cries in response to other’s crying

Question 37

Younger peer relationships: 6-12 months

Answer 37

tries to influence another baby by looking, touching, vocalizing; interacts with other infants in a generally friendly way but may sometimes hit or push

Question 38

younger peer relationships: 13-24 months

Answer 38

begins turn taking; engages in more social play; begins to engage in imaginative play

Question 39

younger peer relationships: 25-36 months

Answer 39

: begins invitations to play or to switch roles; begins to prefer peers to adults as companions

Question 40

younger peer relationships: 3 years

Answer 40

begins to engage in complex cooperative and dramatic play; starts to prefer same-gender playmates

Question 41

younger peer relationships: 4 years

Answer 41

shares more with peers than 3-year-olds

Question 42

younger peer relationships: 4.5 years

Answer 42

begins to sustain longer play sequences; is more willing to accept roles other than protagonist

Question 43

younger peer relationships: 6 years

Answer 43

reaches a peak in imaginative play

Question 44

younger peer relationships: 7 years

Answer 44

shows stable preferences for same-gender playmates

Question 45

younger peer relationships: 7-9 years

Answer 45

expects friends to share activities, offer help, be physically available

Question 46

Changing relationships as we age:

Answer 46

During middle and late childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers.

By mid-life we may spend more time caring for elderly parents (‘sandwich generation’)

Poor social connectedness in adulthood is associated with a larger risk of premature mortality