WHAP Year-Long Review Flashcards
1
Q
The third major Islamic caliphate (750–1258), ruling from Baghdad. It oversaw a Golden Age of scholarship and trade but declined due to overextension, internal strife, and eventually the Mongol conquest.
A
Abbasid Caliphate
2
Q
A religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) focusing on ending suffering through the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path. It spread throughout Asia, evolving into branches such as Theravada, Mahayana, and later influenced East Asian cultures.
A
Buddhism
3
Q
A major urban center of the Mississippian culture (in present-day Illinois, U.S.), known for its large earthen mounds. It thrived as a trade and ceremonial hub, illustrating complex indigenous societies in pre-Columbian North America.
A
Cahokia (c. 700–c. 1350)
4
Q
A drought-resistant, fast-ripening crop that allowed multiple harvests per year, fundamentally increasing food supplies and helping sustain China’s growing population.
A
Champa Rice
5
Q
Artificial “floating gardens” constructed by the Mexica (Aztecs) on Lake Texcoco. They greatly expanded arable land and supported the empire’s large urban population.
A
Chinampas
6
Q
A monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. By the medieval period, the Catholic Church held significant religious, political, and cultural influence in Europe.
A
Christianity
7
Q
A Confucian-based examination system in imperial China, especially under the Song Dynasty. It allowed government positions to be filled by those who passed rigorous tests, emphasizing merit over aristocratic birth.
A
Civil Service Exam
8
Q
A Chinese philosophical system founded by Confucius, emphasizing moral behavior, respect for hierarchy, and the importance of education. It shaped family structures (filial piety) and governance across East Asia.
A
Confucianism
9
Q
A series of religious wars (1095–1204) launched by European Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from Islamic rule. Although they had mixed military results, they exposed Europeans to Middle Eastern goods and ideas, spurring cultural exchange.
A
Crusades
10
Q
A series of Muslim-ruled sultanates (1206–1526) in northern India. They introduced Islamic governance, Persian culture, and levied the jizya tax on non-Muslims, while also encountering resistance from Hindu kingdoms.
A
Delhi Sultanate
11
Q
A decentralized social and political system in medieval Europe where lords granted land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty. This structure created a strict social hierarchy with serfs at the bottom.
A
Feudalism
12
Q
A form of credit and paper money developed under the Tang and Song dynasties in China. It allowed merchants to deposit goods or cash at one location and withdraw the same amount elsewhere, easing long-distance trade.
A
Flying Cash
13
Q
A practice among elite families in Song China and beyond where young girls’ feet were tightly bound to appear smaller. It symbolized beauty and status but restricted women’s mobility and reinforced patriarchal norms.
A
Footbinding
14
Q
The founder (Temujin) who united Mongol tribes and began a series of conquests across Asia and Eastern Europe (early 13th century). Under his leadership, the Mongols established the largest contiguous land empire in history.
A
Genghis Khan
15
Q
A prosperous city and kingdom (11th–15th centuries) in southeastern Africa known for its massive stone enclosures. Its wealth came from the gold trade and strategic connections to coastal Swahili city-states.
A
Great Zimbabwe
16
Q
A major intellectual center in Abbasid Baghdad where scholars translated and preserved works from Greek, Persian, Indian, and other traditions. It played a critical role in the Islamic Golden Age of science, medicine, and philosophy.
A
House of Wisdom
17
Q
A 14th-century Muslim traveler and scholar from Morocco who journeyed across Dar al-Islam, visiting Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia. His travel accounts documented diverse cultures and Islamic practices.
A
Ibn Battuta
18
Q
A Mongol khanate established in Persia (Iran) after the Mongol Empire’s expansion in the 13th century. It adopted Persian administrative techniques, and many Mongols in the region eventually converted to Islam.
A
Ilkhanate
19
Q
An Andean civilization (c. 1438–1533) with its capital at Cuzco. Known for extensive road systems, terraced agriculture, and the Mit’a labor system, it was conquered by Spanish forces led by Francisco Pizarro.
A
Inca Empire
20
Q
During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church was the main unifying force in Western Europe. It shaped political power (crowned emperors, settled disputes) and set social norms through its doctrines and vast landholdings.
A
Influence of Catholic Church
21
Q
A monotheistic religion founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. By 1200, it had spread from Spain to India, influencing law (Sharia), culture, and intellectual life in many regions (Dar al-Islam).
A
Islam
22
Q
A powerful Southeast Asian empire (802–1431) in what is now Cambodia. Known for the monumental complex Angkor Wat, it blended Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences.
A
Khmer Empire
23
Q
A branch of Buddhism prevalent in East Asia, emphasizing compassion and the role of bodhisattvas—enlightened beings who help others achieve nirvana. It incorporates local beliefs and practices, resulting in diverse forms like Zen in Japan.
A
Mahayana Buddhism
24
Q
A regime in Egypt (1250–1517) founded by Mamluks (enslaved soldiers who rose to power). It became a major center of Islamic culture and trade until conquered by the Ottomans.
A
Mamluk Sultanate
25
The economic system that accompanied feudalism, where rural estates (manors) were self-sufficient. Lords provided protection and land to serfs, who farmed and gave a share of produce to the lord in return.
Manorialism
26
A Venetian merchant who traveled to China under Mongol rule in the late 13th century. His travel writings introduced many Europeans to the wealth and sophistication of East Asia.
Marco Polo
27
An English Christian mystic (14th–15th century) who wrote what is considered the first autobiography in the English language. Her pilgrimages and visions highlight religious devotion and medieval women’s spiritual experiences.
Margery Kempe
28
A Mesoamerican civilization noted for advanced mathematics, calendars, and city-states like Tikal and Chichén Itzá. Although its Classic Period ended around 900 CE, Mayan polities continued in various forms until Spanish contact.
Mayans
29
A Mesoamerican people who founded Tenochtitlan (1325) on Lake Texcoco. They built a tribute empire, practiced human sacrifice, and were later conquered by the Spanish under Hernán Cortés.
Mexica (Aztecs)
30
The Inca’s mandatory public labor system, requiring communities to provide laborers for state projects like road-building. The Spanish later adapted it for mining after conquering the Andes.
Mit'a System
31
A vast empire created by Genghis Khan and his successors (13th–14th centuries), stretching from East Asia to Eastern Europe. It facilitated trade (Silk Roads), spread technology, and also inflicted devastation through conquest.
Mongol Empire
32
A revival of Confucian ideas integrating elements of Daoism and Buddhism, gaining prominence under the Song Dynasty. It reinforced a strict moral and social hierarchy, influencing East Asian art, politics, and education.
Neo-Confucianism
33
Educated elite in imperial China who passed civil service exams and served in bureaucratic posts. They enjoyed high social status and shaped policy in line with Confucian values.
Scholar-Gentry
34
A nomadic Turkic dynasty that controlled parts of the Middle East (11th–14th century). Their defeat of the Byzantine army at Manzikert (1071) opened Anatolia to Turkish migration and helped set the stage for the Crusades.
Seljuk Turks
35
Peasants in feudal Europe bound to their lord’s land. In exchange for working the land and providing produce, they received protection but had limited freedoms.
Serfs
36
One of the two main branches of Islam, believing leadership should descend through the Prophet’s family (via Ali). Shi’a communities often formed distinct political/cultural identities, sometimes clashing with Sunni powers.
Shi'a
37
A Chinese dynasty (960–1279) noted for strong bureaucracy, economic revolution (trade, paper money), and Neo-Confucian thought. It presided over innovations like gunpowder weapons and advanced iron production.
Song Dynasty
38
Selectively borrowed Chinese bureaucracy, Buddhism, and writing systems while retaining its native Shinto beliefs and feudal structure under powerful regional lords (daimyō).
Song influence in Japan
39
Aadopted Confucian ideals, civil service models, and Chinese cultural aspects. However, it maintained its own monarchy and later developed a unique writing system (Hangul) under the Joseon Dynasty.
Song influence in Korea
40
Embraced some Confucian bureaucracy and Chinese agricultural techniques (like Champa Rice), but popular culture remained distinct, with more rights for women and recurring rebellions against direct Chinese rule.
Song influence in Vietnam
41
A maritime empire (c. 670–1025) based on Sumatra, thriving on Indian Ocean trade. It promoted Buddhism and controlled vital choke points in the Straits of Malacca, linking East and South Asia.
Srivijaya Empire
42
A mystical branch of Islam emphasizing personal devotion and direct experience of God. Sufi missionaries traveled widely, helping spread Islam through adaptable, localized practices.
Sufism
43
The largest branch of Islam, holding that the caliph need not be from the Prophet’s direct lineage, but chosen by consensus. Historically, most Muslim states (Ottoman, Umayyad, Abbasid) followed Sunni traditions.
Sunni
44
A group of East African city-states (e.g., Kilwa, Mombasa) that blended Bantu and Arab cultures, thriving on Indian Ocean trade. They exported gold, ivory, and enslaved people and imported textiles and porcelain.
Swahili Coast
45
An empire structure (notably with the Mexica/Aztecs) in which conquered peoples provided goods/labor (tribute) to the ruling power. This funded further expansion and monumental building projects.
Tribute Empire
46
A powerful Hindu kingdom (1336–1646) in Southern India. It resisted Islamic invasions from the north and fostered temple architecture, trade, and cultural development.
Vijayanagara Empire
47
A+A1:B47 Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism emphasizing meditation (zazen) and direct insight over formal doctrine. It has roots in Chinese Chan Buddhism, focusing on simplicity and the teacher-student transmission of enlightenment.
Zen Buddhism
48
A navigational instrument perfected by Muslim scholars to determine latitude by measuring celestial bodies. It enhanced maritime exploration along routes like the Indian Ocean.
Astrolabe
49
A devastating bubonic plague pandemic in the mid-14th century that spread along trade routes (including the Silk Roads), killing perhaps a third of Europe’s population and significantly altering social and economic structures.
Black Death
50
Roadside inns located along overland trade routes (e.g., Silk Roads) where travelers and merchants could rest, resupply, and exchange goods. They facilitated safer and more efficient long-distance commerce.
Caravanserai
51
Traditional Arab sailing vessels featuring lateen sails, crucial for Indian Ocean trade. Their agility and ability to tack against monsoon winds made them well suited for maritime commerce.
Dhow Ships
52
Merchant or migrant communities settled far from their homelands (e.g., Chinese in Southeast Asia, Arab traders in East Africa). They often introduced new cultural, religious, and commercial practices to local societies.
Diasporic Communities
53
The Mongol khanate established in parts of Russia and Eastern Europe (13th–15th centuries). Although it exacted tribute from Russian principalities, it also influenced the region’s military and administrative structures.
Golden Horde
54
Large Chinese ships with multiple sails and watertight compartments, used for trade and exploration. They were key to China’s dominance in maritime commerce in the Indian Ocean, especially during the Ming era.
Junk Ships
55
Triangular sails that could catch wind from various directions, allowing ships to tack (sail against the wind). Adopted in the Indian Ocean region, they greatly expanded navigational possibilities.
Lateen Sails
56
A Venetian traveler whose account of China under Mongol rule inspired European interest in Asian goods. He traveled along the Silk Roads, demonstrating the era’s interconnectedness.
Marco Polo
57
Though typically associated with medieval European pilgrimage, her travels also reflect broader pilgrimage and trade routes. Her book highlights personal religious experience and cultural connections across regions.
Margery Kempe
58
Under Genghis Khan and successors, the Mongols conquered vast territories across Eurasia. Their rule enhanced Silk Road security (Pax Mongolica), facilitating long-distance trade and cultural exchange.
Mongol Empire
59
Seasonal wind patterns in the Indian Ocean that dictated sailing schedules. Merchants timed their voyages around these predictable winds, fostering regular trade between East Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia.
Monsoon Winds
60
A period of relative stability and safety across the Mongol Empire in the 13th–14th centuries. It allowed trade, travel, and communication (like Marco Polo’s journeys) to flourish across Eurasia.
Pax Mongolica
61
The blending of different religious or spiritual traditions (e.g., Sufi Islam mixing with local customs, or Buddhism melding with Confucian norms in China). Trade and migration often accelerated such cultural fusions.
Religious Syncretism
62
A major Silk Road city in Central Asia (modern Uzbekistan). It flourished under both Islamic and Mongol rule, becoming renowned for its mosques, madrasas, and as a center of cultural and intellectual exchange.
Samarkand
63
Overland trade routes linking East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. They carried luxury goods (silk, porcelain, spices) as well as ideas, technologies, and disease (notably the Black Death).
Silk Roads
64
Ibn Battuta (Muslim scholar who documented Islamic lands), Zheng He (Chinese admiral who led expeditions in the Indian Ocean), Marco Polo (Venetian merchant) all exemplify individuals who connected different regions via trade.
Traders/Travelers in Unit 2
65
The Mongol-led dynasty in China (1271–1368) established by Kublai Khan. It integrated Chinese bureaucratic practices but also employed foreigners in official roles, fostering international connections and cultural exchange.
Yuan Dynasty
66
Mughal emperor (1658–1707) noted for his expansive conquests and enforcement of stricter Islamic practices, reversing much of Akbar’s religious tolerance. Under his reign, internal strife increased and regional revolts weakened the empire.
Aurangzeb (Mughal Empire)
67
The founder of the Mughal Empire in India (1526), a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. He established a dynasty that would blend Persian, Indian, and Islamic cultures.
Babur
68
Empress of Russia (1762–1796) who continued Peter the Great’s Westernization efforts. She expanded Russian territory, reformed administration, and patronized the arts, although serfdom remained firmly in place.
Catherine the Great
69
The capital of the Byzantine Empire, conquered by the Ottomans in 1453 under Mehmed II. Renamed Istanbul, it became a vital political and cultural center of the Ottoman Empire.
Constantinople
70
An Ottoman system of conscripting Christian boys from the Balkans, converting them to Islam, and training them as soldiers (Janissaries) or bureaucrats. It fostered loyalty to the sultan and a highly skilled administration.
Devshirme
71
The Chinese imperial palace complex in Beijing, primarily built during the Ming Dynasty and used by the Qing as well. It symbolized imperial power and hosted the emperor’s court, inaccessible to most commoners.
Forbidden City
72
Refers chiefly to the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires, which used gunpowder weapons (cannons, muskets) to expand and centralize power from the 15th to 18th centuries.
Gunpowder Empires
73
A Grand Prince of Moscow (r. 1462–1505) who ended Mongol domination and consolidated Russian lands. Often credited with laying the foundations of the Russian state and autocracy.
Ivan the Great (Ivan III)
74
Tsar of Russia (r. 1547–1584) known for territorial expansion into Siberia, centralizing royal authority, and his brutal oprichnina policies. His reign cemented autocratic rule but was also marked by internal violence.
Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV)
75
Elite Ottoman infantry units formed through the Devshirme system. They became a powerful military corps and, over time, influential in Ottoman politics.
Janissaries
76
An Islamic empire in the Indian subcontinent (1526–1857) known for religious diversity, monumental architecture (e.g., the Taj Mahal), and the blending of Persian and Hindu cultures.
Mughal Empire
77
A major Islamic empire (c. 1300–1922) spanning Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. Renowned for military might (gunpowder), a strong navy, and a diverse population governed through systems like the millet.
Ottoman Empire
78
A lavish royal residence built under French King Louis XIV in the 17th century. It showcased absolute monarchy and centralized power, symbolizing royal grandeur and control over the nobility.
Palace of Versailles
79
The last imperial dynasty of China (1644–1912), founded by the Manchu. It expanded Chinese territory, maintained Confucian bureaucracy, but faced internal rebellions and Western pressures in the 19th century.
Qing Dynasty
80
Evolving from Muscovy, Russia expanded eastward into Siberia and built a centralized autocracy under the tsars. It blended Byzantine and Mongol influences, retaining a strong Orthodox Christian identity.
Russian Empire
81
A Persian empire (1501–1736) under Shahs who established Twelver Shi’ism as the state religion. Known for its rivalry with the Sunni Ottoman Empire and cultural achievements in architecture, textiles, and art.
Safavid Empire
82
The founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia (early 16th century). He enforced Shi’a Islam, setting the stage for political and sectarian conflicts with neighboring Sunni powers (particularly the Ottomans).
Shah Ismail
83
A 16th-century Ottoman sultan who presided over the empire’s golden age, expanding into Europe and the Middle East while promoting law (the Kanun) and the arts. He was known for both military conquests and administrative reforms.
Suleiman the Magnificent
84
Ongoing conflict between the Sunni Ottomans and Shi’a Safavids over territory and religious orthodoxy. It shaped Middle Eastern politics, with battles like Chaldiran (1514) illustrating the intensity of their divide.
Sunni–Shi’a Rivalry
85
A mausoleum in Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It fuses Persian, Islamic, and Indian architectural styles and symbolizes the empire’s wealth and cultural synthesis.
Taj Mahal
86
A system where governments auction the right to collect taxes to private individuals or groups (tax farmers). While it secured revenue for empires like the Ottomans, it could lead to corruption and oppression of taxpayers.
Tax Farming
87
The last feudal Japanese military government. It enacted strict social hierarchies, isolationist foreign policies (sakoku), and centralized power over the daimyo, setting the stage for eventual modernization under the Meiji Restoration.
Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868)
88
Landowning elites or officials in Mughal India responsible for collecting taxes from peasants. While they initially served the empire’s revenue system, some grew powerful and semi-autonomous, influencing local politics and stability.
Zamindars (Mughal Empire)
89
The forced dispersion of Africans primarily through the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. Enslaved Africans brought cultural influences (music, religion, cuisine) to the Americas, shaping new, blended societies.
African Diaspora
90
A Portuguese explorer who, in 1488, was the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. His voyage opened sea routes for trade with Asia.
Bartolomeu Dias
91
A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese. Its lateen sails and shallow draft made it ideal for Atlantic exploration during the 15th–17th centuries.
Caravel
92
A larger ocean-going ship used by Europeans (especially the Portuguese and Spanish) in the 14th–17th centuries. It carried substantial cargo, aiding long-distance voyages and trade.
Carrack
93
A racial and social hierarchy in Spanish America categorizing individuals by ancestry, such as peninsulares (born in Spain), creoles, mestizos, mulattoes, and so on. It reinforced colonial power structures and racial divisions.
Castas System
94
A system where individuals are treated as property to be bought or sold, with their legal status (and often that of their offspring) permanently enslaved. It was central to plantation economies in the Americas.
Chattel Slavery
95
An Italian navigator funded by Spain who, aiming to reach Asia by sailing west, arrived in the Caribbean in 1492. His voyages initiated sustained European contact with the Americas, reshaping global demographics and economics.
Christopher Columbus
96
The massive transatlantic exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) and the New World (Americas). It dramatically altered diets, populations, and environments worldwide.
Columbian Exchange
97
A Spanish colonial labor system granting colonists the right to demand tribute and labor from Indigenous peoples in the Americas. In exchange, the Spanish were supposed to provide Christian instruction, but abuses were widespread.
Encomienda System
98
A Portuguese explorer whose expedition (1519–1522) was the first to circumnavigate the globe (though he was killed in the Philippines). It proved the world’s oceans were interconnected but at great human cost.
Ferdinand Magellan
99
A Dutch cargo ship design from the 16th–17th centuries that was inexpensive to build and could carry more cargo. It contributed to the Netherlands’ dominance in maritime trade.
Fluyt
100
A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in the Andes (1532–1533). He exploited internal divisions and took advantage of superior weaponry to capture Emperor Atahualpa.
Francisco Pizarro
101
Spanish treasure ships that connected the Philippines (Manila) with Mexico (Acapulco), carrying silver from the Americas to Asia in exchange for goods like silk and spices. They exemplify the first truly global maritime trade network.
Galleons (1565–1815)
102
A rural estate system in Spanish America where landowners used Indigenous or mixed labor to produce agricultural goods. Although less formal than encomienda, it still bound workers through debt and low wages.
Hacienda System
103
A Spanish conquistador who conquered the Mexica (Aztec) Empire (1519–1521). He capitalized on indigenous alliances and internal strife to defeat Emperor Moctezuma II and capture Tenochtitlan.
Hernan Cortes
104
A labor system where people worked under contract (often 4–7 years) in exchange for passage to the Americas or other benefits. After fulfilling the contract, they were free; it was more common in English colonies.
Indentured Servitude
105
The first permanent English settlement in North America (1607). Surviving through tobacco cultivation, it exemplified early British colonial patterns of labor and relations with Indigenous populations.
Jamestown
106
Companies (e.g., the British East India Company, Dutch VOC) where investors pooled capital and shared profits/losses. This structure reduced individual risk and fueled European exploration and colonial ventures.
Joint-Stock Companies
107
Settlements formed by escaped enslaved Africans in the Caribbean and Latin America (e.g., Jamaica’s Maroons). They preserved African traditions, built defensive strongholds, and sometimes negotiated treaties with colonial authorities.
Maroon Communities
108
An economic theory where governments regulated trade to accumulate gold and silver. Colonies provided raw materials and markets, while mother countries aimed for a favorable balance of trade through tariffs, monopolies, and shipping laws.
Mercantilism
109
The forced transatlantic voyage of enslaved Africans to the Americas, notorious for brutal conditions, high mortality, and immense suffering. It was a central leg of the Triangular Trade system.
Middle Passage
110
A 1680 uprising of Pueblo peoples in present-day New Mexico against Spanish rule, sparked by religious suppression and forced labor. The successful revolt expelled the Spanish for about a decade before they reasserted control.
Pueblo Revolt
111
A global conflict (1756–1763) involving Europe’s great powers (Britain, France, etc.), with battles in North America (French and Indian War), Europe, and India. The British emerged as a dominant colonial power, reshaping colonial possessions.
Seven Years’ War
112
The network linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas, often called the Triangular Trade. European manufactured goods went to Africa, African enslaved people went to the Americas, and American raw materials returned to Europe.
Trans-Atlantic Trade
113
An agreement mediated by the Pope between Spain and Portugal dividing newly encountered lands outside Europe. Spain got most of the Americas, while Portugal focused on Africa and Brazil, shaping colonial boundaries.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
114
A three-legged network connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas. European merchants traded goods for enslaved Africans, transported them across the Middle Passage, and then shipped American crops and resources back to Europe.
Triangular Trade
115
A Portuguese explorer who in 1498 reached India by sailing around Africa, opening direct maritime trade between Europe and Asia. His voyage shifted trade power from overland routes to the Portuguese-controlled sea lanes.
Vasco da Gama
116
Improvements in farming (crop rotation, seed drill) in the 18th century that boosted food production. This increased population and urbanization, setting the stage for the Industrial Revolution.
Agricultural Revolution
117
Sparked by Enlightenment ideals and resentment of British colonial policies, it led to the creation of the United States. The Declaration of Independence (1776) argued for natural rights and popular sovereignty.
American Revolution (1775–1783)
118
Conflicts in South Africa between the British Empire and Boer (Afrikaner) republics. Britain’s victory expanded its control over the region, sowing seeds for later racial policies culminating in apartheid.
Boer Wars (1880–1881, 1899–1902)
119
A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party led by Vladimir Lenin. In 1917, they seized power during the October Revolution, establishing the world’s first communist government (Soviet Russia).
Bolsheviks (Russia)
120
A principle dividing government powers among different branches (executive, legislative, judicial) so no single branch dominates. It underpinned the U.S. Constitution to prevent tyranny.
Checks and Balances
121
Regulations passed in industrializing nations (e.g., Factory Acts in Britain) limiting the hours and conditions under which children could work. They aimed to protect children’s welfare amid factory exploitation.
Child Labor Laws
122
A meeting of European powers after the Napoleonic Wars aiming to restore balance of power and the old monarchies. It redrew the map of Europe, setting up conservative regimes to contain future revolutionary upheavals.
Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)
123
A 19th-century ideology prescribing that women’s proper role was in the home, focusing on childrearing and morality. It reinforced a gendered division of labor, especially among the emerging middle class.
Cult of Domesticity
124
The document by which the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed separation from Britain. Influenced by Enlightenment thought (Locke), it asserted unalienable rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
Declaration of Independence (1776)
125
A fundamental statement of the French Revolution (1789) proclaiming liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It challenged the divine right of kings and feudal privileges.
Declaration of the Rights of Man
126
The philosophy asserting knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation (championed by Francis Bacon, John Locke). It fueled scientific inquiry and challenged reliance on tradition alone.
Empiricism
127
An intellectual movement in 18th-century Europe emphasizing reason, individual rights, and the scientific method. Philosophers like Locke, Voltaire, and Montesquieu questioned absolute rule and shaped modern democratic thought.
Enlightenment
128
A pre-revolutionary social structure divided into First (clergy), Second (nobility), and Third Estate (commoners). Inequalities in tax burdens and representation fueled revolutionary discontent in 1789.
Estates System (France)
129
The initial wave (c. 1750–1850), focused on textiles, steam power, and iron in Britain. It spread to Europe and North America, transforming production and creating new social classes.
First Industrial Revolution
130
Caused by Enlightenment ideas, fiscal crises, and social inequality. It toppled the monarchy, issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and descended into the Reign of Terror before Napoleon’s rise.
French Revolution (1789–1799)
131
Achieved under Otto von Bismarck (1871) through “Blood and Iron” policies and wars against Austria and France. It consolidated independent German states into a single empire under Prussian leadership.
German Unification
132
A short-lived republic encompassing modern Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama, formed after independence from Spain under Simón Bolívar. Political disagreements led to its dissolution into separate nations by 1830.
Gran Colombia (1819–1830)
133
A successful uprising of enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, overthrowing French rule. It resulted in Haiti becoming the first independent Black republic.
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
134
A movement (Risorgimento) culminating in 1871 with the Kingdom of Italy. Key figures included Cavour in the north and Garibaldi in the south, who together unified various city-states and kingdoms.
Italian Unification
135
An Enlightenment thinker emphasizing popular sovereignty and the “general will.” His ideas influenced democratic revolutions by advocating that legitimate power arises from the consent of the governed.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
136
An Enlightenment philosopher arguing that people have natural rights (life, liberty, property). He claimed governments must secure these rights, and if they fail, citizens have the right to overthrow them.
John Locke
137
A British philosopher who promoted liberal values, individual freedoms, and utilitarian ethics (“greatest good for the greatest number”). His works influenced debates on democracy, women’s rights, and economic freedom.
John Stuart Mill
138
A 19th-century German philosopher and economist. Co-author of The Communist Manifesto, he argued that class struggle would lead to a proletarian revolution, establishing a classless, communist society.
Karl Marx
139
Includes the spinning jenny, water frame, steam engine, and power loom. These innovations mechanized production, primarily in textiles, spurring factory growth and urbanization.
Key Inventions & Technologies of the Industrial Revolution
140
Organizations of workers formed to protect their rights and interests (higher wages, safer conditions). By striking and collective bargaining, they gradually secured reforms during industrialization.
Labor Unions
141
An economic theory (Adam Smith) advocating minimal government interference in free markets. It held that competition and self-interest naturally regulate the economy for the general good.
Laissez-Faire Capitalism
142
Early 19th-century uprisings against Spanish/Portuguese colonial rule, led by figures like Simón Bolívar (northern South America) and José de San Martín (southern). They resulted in multiple independent nations with ongoing political struggles.
Latin American Revolutions
143
An early feminist writer (A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792) arguing that women’s education is essential for equality and societal progress. She challenged traditional gender roles of her time.
Mary Wollstonecraft
144
A period when Japan ended the Tokugawa Shogunate’s isolation, rapidly modernized its economy and military, and embraced Western technology. This transformation positioned Japan as an emerging global power.
Meiji Restoration (1868)
145
Enlightenment thinker famous for advocating separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. His ideas influenced modern constitutions, including that of the United States.
Montesquieu
146
A key leader in the Indian independence movement who later became the founder and first Governor-General of Pakistan (1947). He spearheaded the idea of a separate Muslim-majority state, leading to the partition of British India.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
147
A French military leader who took power after the Revolution, declared himself Emperor, and expanded French territory across Europe. He instituted the Napoleonic Code but was eventually defeated in 1815.
Napoleon Bonaparte
148
A strong identification with one’s nation or ethnic group, often accompanied by the desire for self-government. It was a driving force behind movements like German and Italian unification.
Nationalism
149
A radical phase of the French Revolution under the Committee of Public Safety (led by Robespierre), marked by mass executions of “enemies of the revolution.” It ended with Robespierre’s downfall.
Reign of Terror (1793–1794)
150
A later wave (c. 1850–1900) focusing on steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum. It led to new industries (e.g., railroads, telegraphs) and spurred global economic and social changes.
Second Industrial Revolution
151
Mid-19th-century Qing reforms seeking to adopt Western technology (shipyards, arsenals) while retaining Confucian values. Internal resistance from conservative elites limited its overall impact.
Self-Strengthening Movement (China)
152
A Venezuelan creole who led independence movements in northern South America (Gran Colombia). Influenced by Enlightenment ideals, he dreamed of a united Spanish America but faced fragmentation after independence.
Simon Bolivar
153
An ideology advocating collective or governmental ownership of the means of production. It emerged in response to the perceived inequalities of capitalism during the Industrial Revolution.
Socialism
154
A symbolic event of the French Revolution when Parisians attacked the medieval fortress-prison. It represented a direct challenge to royal authority and the beginning of widespread revolutionary action.
Storming of the Bastille (1789)
155
A revolutionary leader sometimes called the “father of modern China.” He played a pivotal role in overthrowing the Qing Dynasty (1911) and advocated the “Three Principles of the People”: nationalism, democracy, and livelihood.
Sun Yat-sen
156
A former enslaved person who became the leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political prowess helped turn Saint-Domingue into the first Black-led republic (Haiti).
Toussaint L’Ouverture
157
The growth and expansion of cities as people moved from rural areas to factory centers during industrialization. It led to overcrowding, poor sanitation, and eventual public health and housing reforms.
Urbanization
158
An Enlightenment writer known for advocating religious tolerance, freedom of speech, and criticizing the Church and absolute monarchies. His satirical works (e.g., Candide) spread Enlightenment critiques of authority.
Voltaire
159
A massacre in which British troops fired on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, India, killing hundreds of Indian protesters. It galvanized support for Indian independence and became a turning point in British–Indian relations.
Amritsar Massacre (1919)
160
A meeting where European powers formalized the Scramble for Africa, setting rules for claiming African territory to avoid conflict among themselves. It disregarded African political and ethnic boundaries.
Berlin Conference (1884–1885)
161
An anti-foreigner, anti-Christian uprising in Qing China led by the “Righteous and Harmonious Fists.” It was suppressed by an international coalition, weakening the Qing Dynasty further.
Boxer Rebellion (1900)
162
Colonial powers often focused on a single export crop (e.g., rubber, cotton) in their territories for global trade. This made local economies vulnerable to price fluctuations and reliant on imported food.
Cash Crops & Monoculture
163
Ports where steamships could refuel with coal, crucial for long-distance maritime empires in the 19th century. They facilitated naval power projection and global trade routes.
Coaling Stations
164
Founded by Cecil Rhodes, it dominated diamond production in southern Africa. It exemplified how private corporations could control vast resources and profit from imperial ventures.
De Beers Mining Company
165
African colonies would eventually seek self-determination, spurred by grievances under colonial systems.
Decolonization
166
Communities of migrants from the same homeland (e.g., Chinatown, Little Italy) in foreign cities. They preserved cultural traditions and aided newcomers but could face xenophobia from host societies.
Ethnic Enclaves
167
A spiritual revival among some indigenous American tribes, believing that dances and rituals would restore indigenous lands, bring back the buffalo, and expel settlers. U.S. authorities viewed it as a threat, culminating in the Wounded Knee Massacre and the end of armed indigenous resistance.
Ghost Dance Movement
168
The use or threat of naval power to coerce a government into economic or political agreements (e.g., Commodore Perry in Japan, European powers in China). It exemplified how industrial militaries enforced imperial interests.
Gunboat Diplomacy
169
The policy of extending a nation’s power by territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political dominance over other areas. Driven by industrial needs, nationalism, and ideologies like Social Darwinism.
Imperialism
170
The Belgian king who personally ruled the Congo Free State (late 19th–early 20th century) and exploited it for rubber and ivory. His regime was notorious for brutal forced labor and atrocities against Congolese people.
King Leopold II (Congo)
171
Conflicts in New Zealand between the British colonial government and various Māori tribes over land and sovereignty. Although the British eventually prevailed, Māori resistance and cultural revival continued well after the wars.
Māori Wars (1845–1872)
172
Conflicts between China and Britain (later France joined) over the British trade of opium in China. China’s defeat led to “unequal treaties,” ceding Hong Kong to Britain and opening ports to foreign trade under extraterritoriality.
Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860)
173
The idea that all subjects of the Ottoman Empire, regardless of religion or ethnicity, should be equal citizens.
Ottomanism
174
A conflict over control of territories in East Asia (Manchuria, Korea). Japan’s victory shocked the world, marking the first time an Asian power defeated a European empire in modern history.
Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
175
The rapid colonization of Africa by European powers in the late 19th century. Motivated by resource competition and national prestige, it was formalized at the Berlin Conference.
Scramble for Africa
176
A major uprising against British East India Company rule in India, sparked by cultural grievances (rifle cartridges rumored to be greased with pork/beef fat). It led to direct British crown governance (the Raj).
Sepoy Rebellion (1857)
177
A label applied to the declining Ottoman Empire in the 19th century. It referenced the empire’s territorial losses and economic difficulties as European powers vied for influence in its domains.
Sick Man of Europe
178
Conflict between China (Qing) and Meiji Japan over control of Korea. Japan’s victory showcased its successful modernization and further weakened the Qing Dynasty, ceding Taiwan to Japan.
Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
179
The misapplication of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” to human societies, used to justify imperialism and racism by suggesting certain races or nations were inherently superior.
Social Darwinism
180
Regions in late Qing China where specific European powers, Russia, or Japan held exclusive trade or investment rights. It eroded China’s sovereignty, as foreign powers built railways and controlled tariffs in these zones.
Spheres of Influence (China)
181
A massive civil war in Qing China led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the brother of Jesus. Its religious-political upheaval devastated China, weakening the Qing and paving the way for further foreign encroachments.
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)
182
A set of 19th-century reforms (1839–1876) seeking to reorganize the empire’s administration, legal codes, and military along European lines. Although partly successful, they faced conservative resistance and did not fully halt the empire’s decline.
Tanzimat Reforms (Ottoman Empire)
183
The “unequal treaty” ending the First Opium War. It granted Britain indemnities, extraterritorial rights for its citizens, and the cession of Hong Kong, marking the start of a century of Western dominance in China.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
184
An anti-colonial uprising in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, led by a mestizo claiming descent from Inca royalty. Though ultimately suppressed, it foreshadowed broader Latin American independence struggles.
Túpac Amaru II Rebellion (1780–1783)
185
A U.S. corporation that dominated banana and other tropical produce exports in Latin America (“banana republics”). It wielded massive political influence, often shaping local governments’ policies.
United Fruit Company
186
After the abolition or decline of slavery, many colonial powers turned to indentured labor from India or China. Workers signed contracts to labor overseas, often in harsh conditions on plantations or railroads.
Use of Indentured Servitude for Imperialism
187
A series of policies (early 1900s) restricting non-European immigration to Australia. Reflecting racial discrimination, it aimed to maintain a majority-white demographic.
White Australia Policy
188
A phrase from Rudyard Kipling’s poem implying it was Europeans’ moral duty to “civilize” colonized peoples. It rationalized imperial conquest and cultural dominance in Africa and Asia.
White Man’s Burden
189
A prophetic movement among the Xhosa in South Africa, who slaughtered their cattle en masse believing it would drive out British colonizers. It led to famine and further weakened resistance.
Xhosa Cattle Killing (1856–1857)
190
Group of intellecturals who sought to reform the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19c, unsatisfied with the Tanzimat Reforms. They wanted to modernize the empire while still preserving Islamic traditions and emphasized Ottomanism.
Young Ottomans
191
Radical group that emerged in the late 19c and sought to secularize and modernize the Ottoman Empire with a secular, constitutional government and a focus on modernzation and nationalism.
Young Turks
192
Alliance of France, Britain, Russia, and later the United States in both World War I and World War II.
Allied Powers
193
A policy adopted by Britain and France in the 1930s to avoid war with Nazi Germany by conceding some of Hitler’s demands (e.g., Sudetenland). It failed to prevent WWII, as Germany continued its aggression.
Appeasement
194
Heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne whose assassination (1914) by a Serbian nationalist in Sarajevo triggered the chain of alliances that started World War I.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand
195
The Ottoman government’s systematic extermination of 1–1.5 million Armenians. It remains a contested historical event but is widely recognized as one of the first modern genocides.
Armenian Genocide (1915–1917)
196
Germany, Italy, and Japan, allied during World War II. They pursued aggressive expansion, ultimately defeated by the Allies in 1945.
Axis Powers (WWII)
197
Germany’s Luftwaffe attempted to gain air superiority over Britain via bombing raids. Britain’s Royal Air Force resisted, and Germany failed to force a British surrender, marking the first major Axis setback.
Battle of Britain (1940)
198
A pivotal naval battle in the Pacific during WWII where the U.S. destroyed four Japanese aircraft carriers. It marked a turning point, halting Japanese expansion and shifting momentum in the Pacific Theater.
Battle of Midway (1942)
199
“Lightning war,” a German military tactic in WWII involving rapid, coordinated attacks by air and ground forces to quickly overwhelm enemies. Used effectively in the invasions of Poland and France.
Blitzkrieg
200
Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism. These long-term factors created tensions, while the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate spark.
Causes of World War I (MAIN)
201
Stalin’s policy in the late 1920s–1930s of merging individual peasant farms into large, state-controlled enterprises. Intended to boost agricultural output and fund industrialization, it caused widespread famine and peasant resistance.
Collectivization (Soviet Union)
202
A political and economic ideology by Karl Marx advocating a classless society with collective ownership of production. In the 20th century, it was implemented in states like the USSR and China, often diverging from Marx’s original vision.
Communism
203
The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945), hastening Japan’s surrender in WWII. It revealed the destructive power of nuclear weapons and shaped postwar geopolitics.
Dropping of the Atomic Bombs
204
A far-right, authoritarian ideology emphasizing aggressive nationalism, dictatorial power, and suppression of opposition. It rose in Italy under Mussolini and in Germany under Hitler, fueling WWII aggression.
Fascism
205
Centralized economic plans introduced by Joseph Stalin to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union. They set production quotas for heavy industry but often disregarded consumer goods, contributing to shortages and famines.
Five-Year Plans (USSR)
206
Hitler’s aim to acquire “living space” for Germans in Eastern Europe. It justified Germany’s annexations (Austria, Sudetenland) and invasions (Poland, USSR) under Nazi ideology.
German Expansion (Lebensraum)
207
A severe global economic downturn starting with the U.S. stock market crash in 1929. Mass unemployment and social unrest contributed to the rise of extremist ideologies (Nazism, Fascism) in Europe.
Great Depression (1929–1930s)
208
A campaign of political repression (1936–1938) under Joseph Stalin, involving show trials, executions, and imprisonments in gulags. It aimed to eliminate perceived enemies of Stalin’s regime, including Communist Party members.
Great Purge (Soviet Union)
209
The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany, alongside other targeted groups (Romani, disabled, Poles, political dissidents).
Holocaust (1933–1945)
210
A man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine, widely regarded as a genocide by many historians. It was driven by Stalin’s collectivization policies and led to the deaths of millions of Ukrainians from starvation.
Holodomor (Ukraine, 1932–1933)
211
Mussolini’s aggression to build a new Roman Empire. Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations, but weak international response emboldened further fascist aggression.
Italian Invasion of Ethiopia (1935)
212
Japan seized Manchuria for raw materials and strategic advantage. The League of Nations condemned it, but took no forceful action, encouraging further Japanese expansion in East Asia.
Japanese Invasion of Manchuria (1931)
213
An international organization formed after WWI to maintain peace. It lacked enforcement power (the U.S. did not join), and it failed to prevent aggression leading up to WWII.
League of Nations
214
Post-WWI, former Ottoman territories were placed under British or French administration by the League of Nations. It was viewed by many Arabs as continued colonial rule rather than genuine self-determination.
Mandate System
215
A meeting where Britain and France conceded the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Hitler in a policy of appeasement. Germany soon violated the agreement, demonstrating appeasement’s failure.
Munich Conference (1938)
216
An agreement between Hitler and Stalin to not attack each other and secretly divide Eastern Europe. Germany later broke the pact by invading the USSR in 1941.
Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939)
217
Anti-Jewish statutes in Nazi Germany stripping Jews of citizenship and forbidding intermarriage. They were a major step in institutionalizing Nazi racial ideology.
Nuremburg Laws (1935)
218
Military tribunals after WWII where Allied powers prosecuted prominent Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity. They set precedents for international law regarding genocide and war atrocities.
Nuremburg Trials (1945–1946)
219
Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, violating their nonaggression pact. Initially successful, it ultimately failed due to Soviet resistance and harsh winter, turning the tide on the Eastern Front.
Operation Barbarossa (1941)
220
A series of meetings advocating African self-determination and unity, fostering early nationalist cooperation among Africans and those of the diaspora, planting seeds for later independence movements.
Pan African Congress
221
A surprise attack by Japan on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii, prompting American entry into WWII. The U.S. then declared war on Japan (and soon Germany declared war on the U.S.).
Pearl Harbor (1941)
222
A brutal massacre and atrocities committed by Japanese forces in the Chinese city of Nanjing. Thousands of civilians were killed, and widespread sexual violence occurred, fueling anti-Japanese sentiment.
Rape of Nanjing (1937–1938)
223
Post-WWI economic hardships (hyperinflation in Germany, global depression) fueled support for radical solutions like Nazism and Fascism. Nationalist resentments (over Versailles) also played a key role.
Rise of Extremist Ideologies
224
A conflict between the Republican government and fascist Nationalists led by Francisco Franco. Germany and Italy supported Franco, testing their new weapons/tactics, while the USSR aided the Republicans. Franco’s victory established a dictatorship.
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
225
A war requiring full mobilization of civilian and military resources, blurring the line between front and home fronts. Governments controlled economies (rationing, propaganda) to support the war effort.
Total War
226
The peace treaty ending WWI, imposing heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany. Its harsh terms are often cited as a factor contributing to WWII.
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
227
A form of combat in WWI where opposing armies fought from entrenched positions. It led to stalemates, high casualties, and horrendous living conditions on the Western Front.
Trench Warfare
228
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s post-WWI proposal for peace, advocating self-determination, open diplomacy, and an international organization (which became the League of Nations).
Wilson’s 14 Points
229
Innovations like machine guns, heavy artillery, poison gas, tanks, and airplanes made warfare more lethal and contributed to massive casualties and trench stalemates.
World War I Technologies
230
A secret German proposal to Mexico to join WWI against the United States, promising the return of lost territories (Texas, Arizona, New Mexico). Its interception and publication helped propel the U.S. into the war on the Allied side.
Zimmerman Telegram (1917)
231
A struggle against the institutionalized racial segregation in South Africa. Key figures like Nelson Mandela led protests and international campaigns, resulting in the end of apartheid by 1994.
Anti-Apartheid Movement
232
The Cold War competition between the U.S. and USSR to develop and stockpile nuclear weapons and advanced military technology. It led to the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
Arms Race
233
The founder and first President of the Republic of Turkey (1923–1938), after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. He instituted sweeping secular and Western-style reforms, transforming Turkish society, education, and law.
Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal)
234
The Soviet Union blocked Western access to West Berlin. The U.S. and allies responded with an airlift of supplies, illustrating Cold War tensions and the division of Germany.
Berlin Blockade & Airlift (1948–1949)
235
A barrier built by East Germany to stop the flow of refugees to West Berlin. It became a symbol of Cold War division until its fall in 1989, leading to German reunification.
Berlin Wall (1961–1989)
236
An Argentine Marxist revolutionary who assisted Fidel Castro in the Cuban Revolution. He later became a global symbol of rebellion, advocating for socialist revolutions worldwide until his death in 1967.
Che Guevara
237
A conflict between Nationalists (Chiang Kai-shek) and Communists (Mao Zedong). Interrupted by WWII, it ended with the Communist victory in 1949 and the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.
Chinese Civil War (1927–1949)
238
A standoff between the U.S. and the USSR after Soviet nuclear missiles were discovered in Cuba. It brought the world to the brink of nuclear war before negotiations led to a Soviet withdrawal of the missiles.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
239
Mao Zedong’s campaign to purge “bourgeois” and traditional elements, mobilizing Red Guards to attack party officials, teachers, and intellectuals. It caused social, economic, and cultural upheaval.
Cultural Revolution (China, 1966–1976)
240
A period of relaxed tensions between the U.S. and the USSR, characterized by arms control agreements (SALT I, SALT II) and increased diplomatic contact. It ended with renewed confrontation (e.g., Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979).
Detente (1970s)
241
Economic stagnation, nationalist movements, and reforms under Gorbachev (glasnost, perestroika) led to the collapse of Soviet communist power. The USSR broke into multiple independent republics.
Dissolution of the USSR (1991)
242
Gamel Abdel Nasser led a coup (1952), ending the monarchy. He nationalized the Suez Canal (1956), symbolizing the end of British influence and a wave of Arab nationalism.
Egypt – Decolonization
243
Mass protests and emigration crises forced East Germany to open the gates. Its dismantling symbolized the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the end of the Cold War era.
Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)
244
A Cuban revolutionary who, alongside Che Guevara, overthrew the Batista regime in 1959. He established a socialist state allied with the USSR, making Cuba a focal point of Cold War tensions (e.g., Cuban Missile Crisis).
Fidel Castro
245
Gorbachev’s policies in the USSR (1980s): Glasnost (“openness”) allowed limited freedom of speech and transparency; Perestroika (“restructuring”) attempted economic decentralization. Both inadvertently hastened Soviet collapse.
Glasnost & Perestroika
246
A Vietnamese communist revolutionary leader who fought against French colonial rule and later led North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. His nationalist and socialist ideals shaped Vietnam’s struggle for independence and unification.
Ho Chi Minh
247
A revolt against Soviet influence. It was brutally crushed by the Red Army, signaling that the USSR would use force to maintain control over its Eastern Bloc.
Hungarian Uprising (1956)
248
As Britain withdrew, colonial India was divided into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan (later Bangladesh split from Pakistan). Millions were displaced, and communal violence caused hundreds of thousands of deaths.
Indian Partition (1947)
249
Overthrew the pro-Western Shah, establishing an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. It turned Iran from a monarchy allied with the U.S. to a theocratic state critical of Western influence.
Iranian Revolution (1979)
250
A key leader in Kenya’s independence movement against British colonial rule. As the first Prime Minister (and then President) of Kenya (1963–1978), he guided the nation’s early years, though often with authoritarian policies.
Jomo Kenyatta
251
North Korea (backed by USSR/China) invaded South Korea (backed by the UN, primarily the U.S.). It ended in an armistice along the 38th parallel, dividing the peninsula into two states still technically at war.
Korean War (1950–1953)
252
The Chinese Nationalist Party, originally led by Sun Yat-sen, and later Chiang Kai-shek. It governed parts of China until defeated by the Communists in 1949, after which it retreated to Taiwan.
Kuomintang (KMT)
253
A strategic retreat by Chinese Communists (led by Mao Zedong) from Nationalist forces. Though arduous and deadly, it solidified Mao’s leadership and laid the foundations for eventual Communist victory in 1949.
Long March (China, 1934–1935)
254
A U.S. initiative to provide billions in economic aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII. It aimed to create stable economies resistant to communism, deepening Cold War divides with the Soviet bloc.
Marshall Plan (1948)
255
A term popularized by U.S. President Eisenhower, warning about the intertwined interests of the military and defense industry. It suggests that continuous arms production can unduly influence national policies.
Military Industrial Complex
256
Seized power in the Congo (later Zaire) in 1965, ruling as a dictator for over three decades. Backed by Western powers during the Cold War, his regime was marked by corruption and cult of personality, contributing to economic decline.
Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo/Zaire)
257
NATO (1949) was a U.S.-led collective defense treaty among Western powers. The Warsaw Pact (1955) was the Soviet-led counter-alliance in Eastern Europe, formalizing the Cold War’s military blocs.
NATO & Warsaw Pact
258
Led by countries (e.g., India, Yugoslavia, Egypt) that sought an independent path during the Cold War, refusing to align strictly with either the U.S. or the USSR.
Non-Aligned Movement
259
A reform movement in Czechoslovakia promoting “socialism with a human face.” The USSR and allies invaded to suppress it, reaffirming tight Soviet control over Eastern Bloc states.
Prague Spring (1968)
260
A major act of civil disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi to protest the British salt monopoly in colonial India. Participants marched to the sea to make their own salt, galvanizing nationalist sentiment.
Salt March (1930)
261
A Marxist-inspired movement that overthrew the Somoza dictatorship in 1979. The U.S. covertly supported Contra rebels against the Sandinistas, making Nicaragua a Cold War proxy conflict.
Sandinista Revolution (Nicaragua)
262
Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance or “truth force.” It inspired many independence and civil rights movements worldwide, emphasizing moral persuasion over aggression.
Satyagraha
263
Post-WWII fears of communist infiltration in the U.S., leading to McCarthyism, blacklists, and loyalty investigations. Civil liberties were curtailed as government hunted suspected communists.
Second Red Scare (U.S.)
264
The USSR intervened to support a communist government in Afghanistan. U.S.-backed mujahideen resistance drained Soviet resources, contributing to Soviet decline.
Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989)
265
U.S. policy pledging support to nations threatened by communist expansion, initially aiding Greece and Turkey. It signaled America’s global leadership in containing communism.
Truman Doctrine (1947)
266
A Cold War proxy conflict where the communist North (supported by USSR/China) fought the South (supported by the U.S.). The U.S. withdrawal (1973) preceded the North’s victory, unifying Vietnam under communism.
Vietnam War (1955–1975)
267
Post-WWII waves of feminism focused on equality in work, education, and legal status. Landmark changes included suffrage expansions (earlier in some countries), reproductive rights, and broader civil rights.
Women’s Rights Movements
268
Meetings of Allied leaders (Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin; later Truman) to discuss post-WWII Europe. They reshaped borders, demanded unconditional Axis surrenders, and set the stage for division of Germany and Cold War tensions.
Yalta & Potsdam Conferences (1945)
269
A global flu pandemic following WWI, killing an estimated 50 million people worldwide. It highlighted the dangers of rapid troop and civilian movements in spreading disease.
1918 Influenza
270
Continuous news coverage enabled by cable TV and the internet. It shapes public perception, political discourse, and can contribute to misinformation or sensationalism.
24-Hour News Cycle
271
A continental union of African countries (founded in 2002, successor to the Organization of African Unity). It aims to promote unity, peace, and economic cooperation across Africa.
African Union
272
Drugs derived from microorganisms (penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928) that fight bacterial infections. They revolutionized medicine, drastically reducing mortality from bacterial diseases.
Antibiotics
273
Groups opposing aspects of global economic integration, criticizing multinational corporations, environmental damage, labor exploitation, and perceived erosion of local cultures.
Anti-Globalization Movements
274
A wave of pro-democracy uprisings and protests across the Middle East and North Africa. It led to the ousting of long-standing rulers in some countries (e.g., Tunisia, Egypt) but resulted in civil conflict or authoritarian crackdowns in others.
Arab Spring (2010–2011)
275
A regional intergovernmental organization promoting economic, political, and security cooperation among Southeast Asian nations. It has grown in influence in regional trade and conflict resolution.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)
276
The widespread sharing of music, film, food, and art across national borders in the late 20th–21st centuries. It fosters cross-cultural influence but can prompt concerns about cultural homogenization.
Cultural Exchange in Globalization
277
The gap between those who have ready access to modern information and communications technology (like the internet) and those who do not. It reflects broader inequalities in education and infrastructure.
Digital Divide
278
Policies reducing state intervention in the economy (e.g., deregulation, privatization, free trade). Adopted by many countries from the late 20th century, often promoted by global institutions like the IMF.
Economic Liberalization
279
A political and economic union of European countries that evolved from earlier communities (EEC). It introduced a single market, free movement of people, and a common currency (the euro) for many members.
European Union (EU)
280
A series of treaties establishing standards for humanitarian treatment in war (e.g., protection of civilians, prisoners of war). They are a cornerstone of international law regarding armed conflict.
Geneva Convention
281
The increasing interconnection of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, accelerated by trade, technology, and travel. It has promoted global trade but also sparked debates over sovereignty, labor, and the environment.
Globalization
282
Agricultural innovations (high-yield seeds, synthetic fertilizers, irrigation) that greatly increased food production in developing countries. It reduced famine but raised concerns about environmental impact and sustainability.
Green Revolution (mid-20th century)
283
An international NGO founded in 1971 focusing on environmental activism (e.g., anti-whaling, anti-nuclear campaigns). It highlights global ecological awareness and grassroots pressure on governments/corporations.
Greenpeace
284
An epidemic recognized in the early 1980s; HIV/AIDS caused millions of deaths globally, with Sub-Saharan Africa heavily affected. Stigma and high drug costs initially hampered response, though international efforts have improved treatment.
HIV/AIDS crisis
285
Established in 2002 to prosecute individuals for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression. It aims to hold perpetrators accountable when national courts are unwilling or unable to do so.
International Criminal Court (ICC)
286
Global financial institutions formed at Bretton Woods (1944). The IMF provides loans to stabilize currencies, and the World Bank funds development projects. Both are sometimes criticized for imposing neoliberal policies.
International Monetary Fund & World Bank
287
A global network of interconnected computers enabling instant communication and information exchange. Commercialized in the 1990s, it revolutionized commerce, social interaction, and knowledge dissemination.
Internet
288
An international treaty committing signatories to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It marked a major global effort to combat climate change, though some major polluters did not ratify or withdrew.
Kyoto Protocol (1997)
289
A mosquito-borne infectious disease prevalent in tropical regions. Global efforts (e.g., insecticide-treated nets, new drugs) continue to combat high mortality rates, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.
Malaria
290
Portable telephones that evolved into multifunctional devices with internet access. They significantly changed communication, commerce, and social media use worldwide.
Mobile & Smartphones
291
Large businesses operating in multiple countries (e.g., Apple, Toyota). They influence global trade patterns, labor practices, and can rival states in economic power.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs)
292
Nonprofit organizations independent of government, often focusing on humanitarian, environmental, or advocacy goals. Examples include Amnesty International, Doctors Without Borders, and Oxfam.
NGOs (Nongovernmental Organizations)
293
Widespread outbreaks of disease (e.g., 1918 Influenza, COVID-19). Global travel and urbanization can accelerate their spread, underscoring the need for coordinated international health responses.
Pandemics
294
A global accord under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change aiming to limit global temperature rise below 2°C above preindustrial levels. It relies on nationally determined contributions and international cooperation.
Paris Agreement (2015)
295
Government policies (tariffs, quotas) restricting imports to protect domestic industries. This can clash with free-trade goals of economic liberalization and globalization.
Protectionism
296
A groundbreaking environmental science book highlighting the dangers of pesticide use (DDT). It sparked environmental movements and led to regulatory changes in the U.S. and elsewhere.
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962)
297
Founded in 1945 to maintain global peace and security, promote human rights, and foster social/economic development. It includes various organs (Security Council, General Assembly) and specialized agencies (UNICEF, WHO).
Role of UN (United Nations)
298
Online platforms (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, WeChat) facilitating user-generated content and global communication. They reshape political activism, marketing, and personal interactions on an unprecedented scale.
Social Media
299
Economic growth that meets current needs without depleting resources for future generations. It balances environmental protection, social equity, and economic advancement.
Sustainable Development
300
A contagious bacterial infection often affecting the lungs. Global initiatives work to curb TB through antibiotics, though antibiotic-resistant strains present ongoing challenges.
TB (Tuberculosis)
301
Pro-democracy demonstrations in Beijing led mostly by students calling for political reforms. The Chinese government’s violent crackdown signaled continued one-party rule and limits on freedom of expression.
Tiananmen Square Protests (1989)
302
A UN document stating fundamental human rights to be universally protected. It lays out principles of dignity, equality, and freedom, influencing international law and many national constitutions.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
303
Biological preparations providing immunity to specific diseases (e.g., polio, measles, COVID-19). Mass vaccination campaigns have eradicated or controlled many infectious diseases worldwide.
Vaccines
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An international body (est. 1995) regulating global trade, aiming to lower trade barriers and settle disputes. Critics argue it can favor wealthy nations and corporate interests over poorer countries.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
