U.S. History Milestones Review Flashcards
1
Q
Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (except as punishment for a crime) throughout the United States, fulfilling Lincoln’s goal of formally ending the institution of slavery.
A
13th Amendment
2
Q
Defined citizenship, guaranteeing equal protection under the law and due process rights to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved people.
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14th Amendment
3
Q
Prohibited states from denying voting rights based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude, theoretically granting African American men the right to vote.
A
15th Amendment
4
Q
Mandated direct election of U.S. senators by voters rather than state legislatures, aiming to reduce corruption and increase democratic participation.
A
17th Amendment
5
Q
Established the prohibition of alcohol in the U.S., making it illegal to produce, transport, or sell alcoholic beverages. Ultimately contributed to the rise of organized crime, and was later repealed.
A
18th Amendment
6
Q
Granted women the right to vote nationwide. Culmination of decades of activism by the women’s suffrage movement.
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19th Amendment
7
Q
A compromise on counting enslaved people for representation and taxation: each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a free person. Helped balance power between slaveholding and non-slaveholding states.
A
3/5 Compromise
8
Q
Coordinated terrorist assaults by al-Qaeda on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001. Led to nearly 3,000 deaths and catalyzed major shifts in U.S. foreign and domestic policy, including the War on Terror.
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9/11 Attacks
9
Q
Effort to end the practice of slavery. Gained momentum in the 19th century, with both immediate and gradual approaches advocated by different groups. Fueled regional disputes, as the Southern economy depended on enslaved labor.
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Abolition Movement
10
Q
Elected amid divisions over slavery. Led the Union during the Civil War, issued the Emancipation Proclamation, and advocated for preserving the nation. Assassinated shortly after the war’s end.
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Abraham Lincoln’s Presidency
11
Q
Enslaved Africans brought significant cultural practices, including music, dance, weaving, and various crafts. They built rich communities despite harsh conditions, and their cultural traditions left a lasting impact on American society.
A
African Population & Contributions
12
Q
A leading advocate for a strong central government, co-author of influential writings supporting the Constitution. Later served as the nation’s first secretary of the treasury, shaping early economic policy.
A
Alexander Hamilton
13
Q
Empowered the president to deport non-citizens deemed dangerous and increased residency requirements for citizenship. Intended to weaken political opposition tied to immigrant communities.
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Alien Act
14
Q
A major labor union that organized skilled workers to collectively bargain for better wages and conditions. Focused on practical, immediate labor goals rather than broad social reform.
A
American Federation of Labor
15
Q
The late 19th- and early 20th-century drive for overseas territories. Motivated by economic, strategic, and ideological factors (e.g., belief in cultural superiority), the U.S. acquired territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.
A
American Imperialism
16
Q
Native tribes resisted U.S. expansion into their lands, leading to conflicts such as the Sioux Wars, the Nez Percé’s flight, and various uprisings. Government policies gradually confined tribes to reservations through treaties that were frequently broken.
A
American Indian Resistance
17
Q
A plan championed to develop a strong economy through protective tariffs, a national bank, and federally funded infrastructure projects like roads and canals, with the goal of linking and industrializing different U.S. regions.
A
American System
18
Q
A West Coast immigration station near San Francisco, receiving many Asian immigrants. Conditions and interviews were often stricter than at Ellis Island, reflecting nativist attitudes and policies.
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Angel Island
19
Q
Opposed the Constitution’s ratification without guarantees of individual and states’ rights. Feared the federal government would become too powerful. Their pressure led to the addition of the Bill of Rights.
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Anti-Federalists
20
Q
America’s first national government framework. Created a weak central authority with no power to tax or enforce laws. Conflicts among states and lack of centralized power soon revealed the Articles’ weaknesses, prompting calls for a stronger federal system.
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Articles of Confederation
21
Q
Occurred just days after the Confederate surrender. Lincoln’s death shocked the nation and placed Reconstruction in the hands of his successor, Andrew Johnson, who faced bitter conflict with Radical Republicans.
A
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
22
Q
Occurred in Dallas, Texas, in 1963. Shocked the nation and led to the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, who advanced civil rights legislation partly in Kennedy’s memory.
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Assassination of John F. Kennedy
23
Q
In 1968, King was fatally shot in Memphis, Tennessee. Sparked national mourning and civil unrest, marking a major turning point in the fight for racial equality.
A
Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
24
Q
Occurred in 1968 shortly after he won the California presidential primary. Deprived the nation of a leading political figure promoting civil rights and opposition to the Vietnam War.
A
Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy
25
Japanese surprise assault on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, killing thousands and bringing the United States into World War II against the Axis powers.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
26
The first African American to hold the office of the Presidency. Elected in 2008, his time in office focused on healthcare reform, economic recovery, and progressive social policies.
Barack Obama
27
A Prussian military officer who trained Continental Army soldiers, introducing modern drills and discipline at places like Valley Forge. He significantly improved their effectiveness on the battlefield.
Baron von Steuben
28
The bloodiest single-day battle of the Civil War. Though tactically inconclusive, the Confederate retreat allowed Lincoln to announce the Emancipation Proclamation, giving the Union’s war effort a moral dimension.
Battle of Antietam
29
Union forces captured a vital Confederate railroad and manufacturing hub. The city’s fall boosted Northern morale and helped ensure Lincoln’s reelection, as it demonstrated Confederate weakness.
Battle of Atlanta
30
The opening confrontation of the Civil War, where Confederate forces fired on a federal fort in Charleston Harbor. Provoked President Lincoln to call for troops, prompting more states to secede.
Battle of Fort Sumter
31
A three-day fight considered the turning point of the Civil War. The Union repelled Lee’s invasion of the North, and combined with the victory at Vicksburg, it shifted momentum toward the Union.
Battle of Gettysburg
32
A turning-point naval engagement in the Pacific where the U.S. decisively defeated Japan, halting its expansion and shifting momentum toward the Allies.
Battle of Midway
33
Fought after a peace treaty had been signed (but not yet ratified). General Andrew Jackson led a decisive American victory over the British, becoming a national hero and amplifying postwar patriotism.
Battle of New Orleans
34
A major turning point in the Revolution. The American victory convinced France to openly support the colonies. Demonstrated that colonial forces could defeat the British in a large-scale engagement.
Battle of Saratoga
35
A surprise attack led by Washington in late December 1776, crossing the Delaware River and capturing Hessian mercenaries. This victory boosted American morale at a critical time.
Battle of Trenton
36
Gave the Union control of the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy. Together with the Union win at Gettysburg, marked a critical turning point in the war.
Battle of Vicksburg
37
The final major battle of the American Revolution, where British General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington. French naval support helped cut off British escape routes, ensuring a decisive American victory.
Battle of Yorktown
38
A failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles in 1961, aiming to overthrow Fidel Castro. Its failure embarrassed the Kennedy administration and strengthened Castro’s position.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
39
The first ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing fundamental rights and liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and due process, as well as reserving certain powers to the states and the people.
Bill of Rights
40
Southern laws that restricted the rights and freedoms of African Americans after the Civil War, aiming to maintain a labor force and social hierarchy similar to slavery.
Black Codes
41
Violent confrontations between pro-slavery and anti-slavery groups in Kansas, sparked by competing efforts to establish territorial governance. Highlighted the failure of popular sovereignty to settle the slavery issue peacefully.
Bleeding Kansas
42
Supreme Court ruling that struck down the “separate but equal” doctrine in public schools, declaring segregation unconstitutional and paving the way for broader desegregation.
Brown vs. Board of Education
43
A peace agreement brokered by President Jimmy Carter between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Marked a notable diplomatic breakthrough in the Middle East.
Camp David Accords
44
Key factors included excessive stock market speculation, overproduction in agriculture and industry, stagnant wages, consumer debt, and banking failures. The fragile system could not cope with the widespread panic.
Causes of the Great Depression
45
Included British impressment of American sailors, restrictions on U.S. trade, and British support for Native American resistance to U.S. expansion. War Hawks in Congress also pushed for conflict to defend American honor.
Causes of the War of 1812
46
Labor organizer and civil rights leader who co-founded the United Farm Workers, advocating better wages and working conditions for migrant farmworkers through boycotts and nonviolent tactics.
Cesar Chavez
47
Legislation that severely limited Chinese immigration and denied Chinese residents the path to citizenship. Reflected rising anti-Asian sentiment and the broader pattern of restricting certain immigrant groups.
Chinese Exclusion Act
48
Outlawed segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or national origin. It was a major victory of the Civil Rights Movement.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
49
A decades-long struggle to end racial segregation and secure equal rights for African Americans. Key tactics included nonviolent protest, legal challenges, and grassroots activism, ultimately resulting in civil rights legislation.
Civil Rights Movement
50
The Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, ending the Cold War era. This stemmed from internal economic problems, political reforms, and increased independence movements within Soviet republics.
Collapse of the USSR
51
The group of delegates tasked with drafting a formal declaration to justify independence from Britain. Consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. Their work produced the Declaration of Independence, primarily penned by Jefferson.
Committee of Five
52
Networks of colonists that emerged to coordinate resistance to British taxes and policies. They shared news and strategy among the colonies, fostering greater unity and cooperation against perceived British abuses.
Committees of Correspondence
53
A pamphlet by Thomas Paine urging the colonies to declare independence. It attacked the logic of a distant island (Britain) ruling a vast continent (America) and influenced many colonists to support separating from Britain.
Common Sense
54
The North had more factories, a larger population, and a stronger railroad network; the South had an agrarian economy reliant on enslaved labor and better military leadership. These disparities heavily influenced the Civil War’s course and outcome.
Comparison of the North and South
55
Series of laws admitting California as a free state, allowing territorial self-determination elsewhere, ending the slave trade in Washington, D.C., and strengthening the Fugitive Slave Act. Temporarily eased tensions over slavery’s expansion.
Compromise of 1850
56
Resolved the disputed 1876 election. Hayes became president in return for withdrawing federal troops from the South, effectively ending Reconstruction and paving the way for segregationist policies.
Compromise of 1877
57
Led by Radical Republicans who believed in protecting the rights of newly freed African Americans. They imposed stricter conditions for Southern readmission, mandated new state constitutions, and enforced civil rights through federal legislation and amendments.
Congressional Reconstruction
58
Advocated for the responsible use and management of natural resources, leading to the establishment of national parks and protected lands. Prominent figures included Theodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot.
Conservation Movement
59
A meeting in Philadelphia originally intended to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, delegates drafted a new constitution that established a stronger federal government with separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Constitutional Convention
60
The guiding U.S. strategy during the Cold War to prevent the further expansion of communism, often by providing political, economic, or military support to countries resisting communist influence.
Containment
61
FDR’s controversial proposal to add more justices to the Supreme Court to secure favorable rulings for New Deal legislation. Failed politically but signaled the struggle over the separation of powers.
Courthouse (Court) Packing Plan
62
A tense standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union in 1962, when the Soviet Union placed nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis ended with a negotiated withdrawal of missiles in exchange for U.S. pledges regarding Cuba and Turkey.
Cuban Missile Crisis
63
A group of women who supported colonial protests by producing homespun fabrics to reduce dependence on British imports. They also organized boycotts of British goods, playing a critical role in the movement against British policies.
Daughters of Liberty
64
The Allied invasion of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. Opened a critical Western Front against Nazi Germany and hastened the liberation of occupied Europe.
D-Day
65
Executive order that ended racial segregation in the U.S. military. Considered an important step forward for civil rights at the federal level.
Desegregation of the Armed Services
66
Resulted in economic growth, ending the Depression, but also led to rationing and social changes at home. Women and minorities found more job opportunities, while Japanese Americans faced internment.
Domestic Impact of World War II
67
The U.S. use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, prompting Japan’s surrender and ending World War II in the Pacific. Also sparked ethical debates about nuclear warfare.
Dropping of Atomic Bombs
68
Severe drought and poor soil conservation in the Great Plains during the 1930s led to massive dust storms that destroyed farms and forced many families to migrate, often to California.
Dust Bowl
69
As First Lady, she redefined the role by actively championing civil rights, women’s issues, and social reform. Played a key public role in the New Deal and beyond.
Eleanor Roosevelt
70
Highly disputed presidential contest between Samuel Tilden and Rutherford B. Hayes. Tilden won the popular vote but fell short in the electoral vote, leading to a negotiated settlement.
Election of 1876
71
Barack Obama was elected president, the first African American to hold the office. His campaign emphasized themes of hope and change, marking a significant milestone in U.S. political history.
Election of 2008
72
The main processing center in New York Harbor for European immigrants, where they underwent medical and legal inspections. Millions entered the United States through this gateway.
Ellis Island
73
Issued by Lincoln in 1863, declaring enslaved people in Confederate-controlled territories free. It did not apply to border states but shifted the Union’s war aims to include the abolition of slavery.
Emancipation Proclamation
74
A ban on American exports intended to avoid entanglement in the conflicts between Britain and France. The embargo hurt U.S. trade and was deeply unpopular, especially in New England.
Embargo Act
75
Created to consolidate federal research, monitoring, and enforcement efforts regarding environmental protection. Helped regulate pollution and protect natural resources.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
76
A proposed constitutional amendment stating that rights could not be denied or abridged based on sex. It passed Congress but failed to be ratified by the required number of states.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
77
A period following the War of 1812 marked by relative political unity and economic growth. However, underlying differences over tariffs, the national bank, and slavery were still present.
Era of Good Feelings
78
Enacted during World War I to penalize those who interfered with military recruitment or supported the enemy. Often used to suppress dissent and led to controversies over freedom of speech.
Espionage Act
79
A socialist and labor leader who opposed World War I, leading to his imprisonment for violating wartime sedition laws. Ran for president multiple times, including once from prison.
Eugene V. Debs
80
The final major offensive in the European theater of WWII, resulting in the capture of the German capital by Soviet forces and the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945.
Fall of Berlin
81
In this final message to the nation, Washington urged neutrality in foreign affairs and warned against the dangers of political parties and sectionalism.
Farewell Address (Washington’s)
82
The division of powers between a national government and state governments, with certain powers allocated to each and some shared. This system seeks to balance the need for unity with the desire for local autonomy.
Federalism
83
Supporters of the new Constitution who believed in a stronger central government. Argued that the Constitution’s checks and balances would protect individual liberties. They included figures like Hamilton, Madison, and John Jay.
Federalists
84
President Woodrow Wilson’s plan for post-World War I peace, advocating self-determination, open diplomacy, and an international organization to prevent future conflicts (the proposed League of Nations).
Fourteen Points
85
Several thousand free and enslaved African Americans fought alongside the Patriot forces, hoping for freedom or improved rights. Many, however, did not experience lasting gains in liberty or equality even after serving.
Free Black People during the Revolution
86
Provided assistance to formerly enslaved individuals, including food, clothing, education, and legal aid. However, it lacked sufficient funding and political support to enact widespread land distribution.
Freedmen’s Bureau
87
Conflict between Britain and France over control of North American territory, with various American Indian tribes aligning with one side or the other. Britain’s victory gave it control of Canada and other territory but left it heavily in debt, prompting new taxes on the colonies.
French & Indian War
88
Secured primarily after the American victory at Saratoga, the French provided crucial military and naval support to the colonial cause. French troops and supplies played a pivotal role in the final American victory over Britain.
French Alliance
89
A short but significant speech delivered at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield, emphasizing national unity, human equality, and the war’s purpose of preserving a government “of the people, by the people, for the people.”
Gettysburg Address
90
A religious revival that emphasized a personal relationship with God over traditional church structures. Traveling ministers attracted large crowds, encouraging new denominations and a focus on individual salvation. This movement increased religious diversity and challenged established religious and social norms.
Great Awakening
91
The agreement that established a two-house legislature: one house with representation based on population, and one with equal representation for each state. This satisfied both large and small states’ interests.
Great Compromise
92
A severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by factors including overproduction, stock speculation, and bank failures. Began with the U.S. stock market crash of 1929 and led to widespread unemployment, poverty, and economic upheaval.
Great Depression
93
Large-scale movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern and Midwestern cities for better jobs, social opportunities, and escape from racial discrimination. Had profound cultural and demographic impacts, including fueling the Harlem Renaissance.
Great Migration
94
A broad set of social programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson to eliminate poverty, expand access to education, and promote civil rights. Included Medicare, Medicaid, and anti-poverty initiatives.
Great Society
95
As cash crops like tobacco and rice became more profitable, planters expanded their acreage and needed more laborers. They increasingly turned to the transatlantic slave trade, leading to a rapid rise in the number of enslaved Africans, especially in the Southern colonies where plantation agriculture dominated.
Growth of the African Population
96
The legal protection against unlawful imprisonment. During the Civil War, Lincoln suspended this right in certain cases to detain Confederate sympathizers, illustrating the extent of wartime executive powers.
Habeas Corpus
97
A cultural, social, and artistic movement centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York, where African American artists, writers, and musicians (like Langston Hughes and Louis Armstrong) gained wide recognition.
Harlem Renaissance
98
Industrialist who pioneered the moving assembly line for mass-producing affordable automobiles (Model T). Revolutionized manufacturing and changed American society by popularizing car ownership.
Henry Ford
99
Makeshift shantytowns named satirically after President Herbert Hoover, erected by homeless individuals and families during the Great Depression. Reflected widespread frustration over perceived government inaction.
Hoovervilles
100
The governing body in Jamestown that was the first instance of colonial self-government in the English colonies.
House of Burgesses
101
A Congressional committee that investigated suspected communists, especially in government and entertainment, during the Cold War. It contributed to the Second Red Scare and led to blacklisting in Hollywood.
House Un-American Activities Commission
102
Delivered by King at the March on Washington (1963). Called for an end to racism and envisioned a society where individuals are judged by character rather than skin color.
I Have a Dream Speech
103
A series of laws in the 1920s that set quotas on the number of immigrants allowed from certain countries, reflecting strong nativist sentiments and discrimination against specific ethnic and national groups.
Immigration Restrictions
104
During the 1920s, radio and cinema revolutionized mass entertainment and information dissemination. Helped create a shared national culture, shaping public opinion and consumer trends.
Impact of Radio & Movies
105
Television transformed how Americans received news and shaped public opinion, notably in coverage of the civil rights movement and Vietnam War, as well as presidential campaigns.
Impact of Television Coverage
106
Radical Republicans in Congress impeached Johnson for allegedly violating the Tenure of Office Act and other conflicts over Reconstruction. He was acquitted by a single vote but politically weakened.
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
107
Occurred in 1998 on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice related to personal misconduct. He was acquitted in the Senate trial and remained in office.
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
108
Authorized the forced relocation of eastern tribes to lands west of the Mississippi. Led to the Trail of Tears, during which thousands of Cherokee and other tribespeople died from disease, exposure, and starvation.
Indian Removal Act
109
A set of punitive measures passed after the Boston Tea Party, closing Boston Harbor, limiting town meetings, and forcing colonists to quarter British troops. These acts further united the colonies in opposition to what was seen as British tyranny.
Intolerable Acts
110
Began in 1979 when American embassy staff in Tehran were taken hostage by Iranian revolutionaries. The hostages were held for 444 days, severely damaging U.S. public opinion of President Carter.
Iranian Hostage Crisis
111
U.S. strategy in the Pacific, capturing selectively chosen islands closer to Japan, establishing airfields and bases while bypassing heavily fortified enemy strongholds.
Island Hopping
112
Political philosophy associated with Andrew Jackson that expanded voting rights to more white males and championed the common man. Also introduced the spoils system, where political supporters were rewarded with government jobs.
Jacksonian Democracy
113
Often called the “Father of the Constitution.” Played a central role in its drafting and in arguing for ratification. Also helped craft the Bill of Rights to secure broader support.
James Madison
114
Authorized the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans from the West Coast, citing security concerns. Considered one of the most controversial domestic policies of the war era.
Japanese Internment (Executive Order 9066)
115
A music genre that originated in African American communities, known for improvisation and complex rhythms. Became popular nationwide in the 1920s, symbolizing cultural innovation and social change.
Jazz
116
President of the Confederate States of America. Advocated for states’ rights and attempted to secure international recognition for the Confederacy, but was ultimately unsuccessful in preventing the Confederacy’s collapse.
Jefferson Davis
117
Laws in Southern states that mandated racial segregation in public facilities, effectively disenfranchising African Americans and codifying systemic discrimination.
Jim Crow Laws
118
An attempt to incite a slave rebellion by seizing the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. The revolt failed; John Brown was captured, tried, and executed, but his actions further polarized North and South opinions on slavery.
John Brown’s Raid
119
The principle that the Supreme Court has the authority to declare laws unconstitutional. Significantly expanded judicial power, positioning the Supreme Court as a check on the legislative and executive branches.
Judicial Review
120
Allowed new territories to decide the slavery question by popular vote, effectively nullifying the Missouri Compromise. Led to violent conflict in “Bleeding Kansas” between pro- and anti-slavery settlers.
Kansas-Nebraska Act
121
The first televised presidential debates (1960) that showcased the importance of appearance and media performance. Many viewers saw Kennedy as more charismatic on TV, which helped his electoral success.
Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates
122
Fought between communist North Korea (aided by China and the Soviet Union) and South Korea (aided by the United States and UN forces). Ended in an armistice near the original border, with no formal peace treaty.
Korean War
123
A white supremacist group that used violence and intimidation to undermine Black political power and civil rights, seeking to restore pre-war racial hierarchies.
Ku Klux Klan
124
Provided a method for surveying and selling western territories. It divided land into townships, reserving certain sections for public education. Created an orderly process for expansion and land ownership.
Land Ordinance (1785)
125
An international body founded after World War I to resolve disputes peacefully. Although it was Wilson’s idea, the U.S. never joined, weakening the organization’s influence.
League of Nations
126
Allowed the U.S. to provide arms and supplies to countries fighting the Axis powers before direct American entry into WWII. Signaled a shift away from strict neutrality.
Lend-Lease Act
127
Written by King while jailed for protesting segregation. Defended the strategy of nonviolent civil disobedience and criticized moderate allies for arguing change should come more slowly.
Letter from Birmingham Jail
128
Sent by Jefferson to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, identify resources, and map travel routes. They documented significant geographic and scientific information and established relations with various Native American tribes.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
129
Perfected by Thomas Edison, it ushered in an era of electric lighting. Factories could operate longer hours, and households benefited from safer, more efficient lighting than oil or gas.
Lightbulb
130
Urged national reconciliation after a war fought largely over slavery. Stressed “malice toward none” and “charity for all,” laying groundwork for Reconstruction efforts that sought healing and unity.
Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address
131
A deal in which the U.S. bought the vast Louisiana Territory from France, doubling the nation’s size. Though not explicitly authorized by the Constitution, it set a precedent for executive decision-making in territorial expansion.
Louisiana Purchase
132
A British liner sunk by a German U-boat, causing significant American casualties. The incident enraged U.S. public opinion, nudging the country closer to joining World War I.
Lusitania
133
The secret U.S. program to develop an atomic bomb. Scientists at Los Alamos, New Mexico, successfully tested and built nuclear weapons, altering modern warfare and geopolitics forever.
Manhattan Project
134
Belief that the United States was destined to span from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This notion fueled territorial acquisitions (Texas, Oregon, the Southwest) and contributed to conflicts such as the Mexican War.
Manifest Destiny
135
A landmark Supreme Court case that established the doctrine of judicial review. The court struck down part of a law it deemed inconsistent with the Constitution.
Marbury vs. Madison
136
Sherman’s destructive campaign from Atlanta to Savannah, aiming to break Southern will by destroying railroads, crops, and public infrastructure. It demonstrated a harsh but effective form of warfare.
March to the Sea
137
A French aristocrat who volunteered to help train and lead American troops. He became a key figure in the Continental Army and worked closely with Washington, helping secure additional French support.
Marquis de Lafayette
138
A massive American aid program to help rebuild European nations after WWII, aiming to stabilize economies, prevent the spread of communism, and foster global trade.
Marshall Plan
139
A Baptist minister and foremost leader of the nonviolent civil rights movement. Key organizer of events like the Montgomery Bus Boycott, March on Washington, and famous for his “I Have a Dream” speech. Assassinated in 1968.
Martin Luther King, Jr.
140
The method of producing large quantities of goods quickly and cheaply, exemplified by the assembly line in the automotive industry. Helped spark consumerism, especially in the 1920s.
Mass Production
141
A period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the early 1950s, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. Numerous government employees and citizens were investigated, often with little evidence, creating an atmosphere of fear.
McCarthyism
142
Economic theory holding that a nation’s power depends on its wealth, especially in gold and silver, and that colonies exist primarily for the benefit of the mother country. The goal is to maintain a favorable balance of trade, wherein colonies provide raw materials and serve as markets for manufactured goods.
Mercantilism
143
A war that resulted in U.S. victory and the acquisition of territories called the Mexican Cession which included California, Arizona, and New Mexico. It intensified debates over the expansion of slavery into new lands.
Mexican War
144
Colonies founded largely for trade and commerce, taking advantage of good harbors and river systems. Characterized by cultural and religious diversity. The economy relied on crops like wheat and corn, as well as lumber and trade. Generally had more cooperative relations with American Indians compared to other regions.
Mid-Atlantic Colonies
145
The sea voyage that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas. It was the middle leg of the three-part voyage (commonly called triangular trade). Conditions were notoriously brutal: enslaved individuals were packed into the cargo holds with insufficient food, hygiene, or space, resulting in high mortality rates.
Middle Passage
146
Admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, keeping a balance in the Senate. Also prohibited slavery in most of the Louisiana Territory above a certain latitude.
Missouri Compromise
147
Rapidly shifting the economy to produce war materials. Included drafting millions of men, encouraging women in factories (“Rosie the Riveter”), and imposing rationing on consumer goods.
Mobilization in World War II
148
A market condition in which one company or group owns nearly all of an industry’s production or service. Often led to reduced competition, higher consumer prices, and debates over antitrust regulation.
Monopoly
149
Declared that European nations should no longer colonize or interfere in the Western Hemisphere, and in return, the United States would not meddle in European affairs. Became a keystone of American foreign policy.
Monroe Doctrine
150
Investigative journalists who exposed social ills, corporate abuses, and political corruption. Their work led to significant public outcry and reform measures (e.g., Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle spurring food safety regulations).
Muckrakers
151
Organization formed to fight for African American civil and political rights through legal action and education. Early leaders included W.E.B. Du Bois.
NAACP
152
The U.S. government agency formed to coordinate the nation’s space efforts, eventually leading to the Apollo missions and the first crewed Moon landing in 1969.
NASA
153
An enslaved preacher who led a violent uprising in Virginia. His group killed dozens of white people, prompting stricter slave laws and widespread fear of further revolts in the South.
Nat Turner’s Rebellion
154
Provided federal funding for a nationwide highway system, connecting major cities and facilitating defense transport. Had a profound impact on travel, commerce, and suburbanization.
National Interstate & Defense Highways Act
155
Founded in 1966 to advocate for women’s rights, including workplace equality, reproductive rights, and the passage of an Equal Rights Amendment.
National Organization for Women (NOW)
156
Legislation in the 1930s aimed at preventing the U.S. from being drawn into foreign wars, limiting arms sales and other support to warring nations. Ultimately revised as global conflict intensified.
Neutrality Acts
157
Washington’s statement declaring the United States neutral in conflicts between other nations, such as Britain and France. Set an early precedent of avoiding entangling alliances.
Neutrality Proclamation
158
A suite of programs, reforms, and regulations to combat the Depression, aiming at relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the financial system. Created agencies like the Civilian Conservation Corps, Works Progress Administration, and Social Security.
New Deal
159
Colonies founded by groups such as the Puritans seeking religious freedom. With rocky soil and a colder climate, farming was less extensive, leading to more emphasis on shipbuilding, fishing/whaling, and trade. Strict religious practices often led to intolerance of other beliefs. Early conflicts with American Indians resulted in many tribes leaving or being pushed out.
New England Colonies
160
Refers to the wave of arrivals primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe (and parts of Asia) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many faced harsh living/working conditions and nativist backlash but contributed significantly to industrial growth and cultural diversity.
New Immigrants
161
A groundbreaking diplomatic trip by President Richard Nixon in 1972, easing tensions with Communist China and reshaping Cold War alliances.
Nixon’s Visit to China
162
Outlined a process for territories to become states on equal footing with existing states. Banned slavery in the Northwest Territory and included provisions for public education, property rights, and representative government.
Northwest Ordinance (1787)
163
A showdown when South Carolina declared certain federal tariffs void within the state. Sparked debate on states’ rights versus federal authority, with President Jackson opposing nullification and threatening federal action.
Nullification Crisis
164
Coordinated propaganda and information to boost morale and support the war effort. It produced posters, radio progams, and films promoting patriotism and unity.
Office of War Information
165
Became a cornerstone of industrial growth, fueled initially by kerosene production and later by the rise of gasoline for engines. John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust became a dominant force, exemplifying the era’s monopolistic tendencies.
Oil Industry
166
Members of this organization placed an oil embargo on the U.S. for its support of Israel, causing fuel shortages, high praices, and exposure of U.S. dependence on foreign oil.
OPEC
167
The 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq aimed at toppling Saddam Hussein’s regime, partly justified by claims of weapons of mass destruction. The prolonged occupation became controversial domestically and internationally.
Operation Iraqi Freedom
168
A 2000-mile route used by pioneers traveling west in the mid-1800s. It was a key part of westward expansion and Manifest Destiny, but was also dangerous and challenging for settlers.
Oregon Trail
169
Built to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America, dramatically cutting shipping times. Exemplified U.S. engineering capability and strategic interests in the early 20th century.
Panama Canal
170
Supreme Court ruling upholding “separate but equal” public facilities, legitimizing segregation. Overturned decades later by Brown vs. Board of Education.
Plessy vs. Ferguson
171
The principle of allowing territorial residents to vote on whether to permit slavery, hoping to reduce federal intervention but often resulting in conflict and violence where the issue was hotly contested.
Popular Sovereignty
172
Guided the U.S. through the Great Depression with the New Deal programs and led the nation during most of World War II. Known for his fireside chats and an unprecedented four presidential election victories.
Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt
173
As the first president, Washington set key precedents like forming a cabinet, enforcing federal law (as seen in the Whiskey Rebellion), and serving only two terms. Warned the nation against permanent alliances and political factions in his farewell address.
Presidency of George Washington
174
Believed in limited government intervention and voluntary cooperation to solve the Depression’s problems. Many felt his policies were insufficient, contributing to his defeat in the next election.
Presidency of Herbert Hoover
175
Guided the nation through the War of 1812 against Britain. Though the U.S. faced early struggles, the war’s conclusion fostered a sense of national unity. Madison’s leadership saw a strengthening of American identity.
Presidency of James Madison
176
Known for the Era of Good Feelings, reflecting a sense of unity and nationalism. His foreign policy stance included the Monroe Doctrine, warning European powers against further colonization in the Americas.
Presidency of James Monroe
177
Served as the second president. Faced foreign challenges such as the XYZ Affair and domestic controversies over the Alien and Sedition Acts. Adams’s term was marked by intense partisan conflict and ended with a peaceful transfer of power to his rival, Thomas Jefferson.
Presidency of John Adams
178
Known for the “Square Deal” of trust-busting, consumer protections, and conservation efforts. Also engaged in an assertive foreign policy, exemplified by the Panama Canal project and the Roosevelt Corollary.
Presidency of Teddy Roosevelt
179
Oversaw the Louisiana Purchase, attempted to maintain neutrality amid European conflicts, and presided over the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson’s administration sought limited government yet dramatically expanded presidential powers through the purchase of new territory.
Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
180
Approach by Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson aiming to reintegrate Southern states quickly and with minimal retribution. Required states to accept the end of slavery but allowed many former Confederates back into power, angering more radical leaders in Congress.
Presidential Reconstruction
181
Issued by the British government, it forbade American colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains to limit conflicts with American Indians. Colonists generally disliked this restriction, as many hoped to expand westward.
Proclamation of 1763
182
Early 20th-century efforts to address problems from industrialization and urbanization, including unsafe working conditions, political corruption, and child labor. Advocates sought legislation to regulate business and improve living standards.
Progressive Reforms
183
Advocated for free, tax-supported schooling for all children, staffed by trained teachers. Reformers believed education was essential for informed citizenship and social stability.
Public School Movement
184
A group known for its pacifism, simplicity, and equality. Many were early abolitionists and supported indigenous and women's rights.
Quakers
185
Law passed by the British that required American colonists to house and supply British soldiers. It angered many colonists and was cited as one of the grievances leading to the American Revolution.
Quartering Act
186
An undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France that arose from disputes over U.S. neutrality and the XYZ Affair.
Quasi War
187
The last monarch of Hawaii before American planters and business interests overthrew her, ultimately leading to its annexation by the U.S.
Queen Lili'uokaliani
188
Established by anti-immigration laws in the 1920s, this system set limits on the number of immigrants allowed from certain countries, aiming to restrict immigration from southern and eastern Europe, as well as all but eliminate immigration from Asia.
Quota System
189
Dramatically expanded after the Civil War, connecting the nation’s regions, promoting trade, and driving economic growth. Spurred further industrialization and western migration.
Railroads
190
Economic policies during Ronald Reagan’s presidency focusing on tax cuts, reduced social spending, and deregulation. Advocates argued it stimulated growth, critics said it increased inequality and deficits.
Reaganomics
191
A period of fear and suspicion regarding communism and other radical ideologies. Led to government raids, deportations, and heightened hostility toward certain political groups and immigrants.
Red Scare
192
The electoral victory of Thomas Jefferson over John Adams, marking the first peaceful transition of power between political parties in U.S. history. It demonstrated the stability and resilience of the new constitutional system.
Revolution of 1800
193
The Confederacy’s most prominent general, he opposed secession but felt loyal to his home state of Virginia. Renowned for strategic brilliance, he ultimately surrendered to Grant in 1865, ending most major combat in the Civil War.
Robert E. Lee
194
An addition to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the U.S. could intervene in Latin America to maintain order and stability. Also called “Big Stick” diplomacy, it expanded U.S. influence in the Western Hemisphere.
Roosevelt Corollary
195
A period in which the British government loosely enforced certain trade regulations in the colonies. This allowed the colonies to develop self-government and local legislative bodies. Colonists gained experience in managing their own affairs, which later contributed to their sense of independence.
Salutary Neglect
196
Supreme Court decision declaring that Black individuals, whether free or enslaved, were not citizens and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories. It effectively invalidated earlier compromises and exacerbated sectional tensions.
Scott vs. Sanford (Dred Scott)
197
A Protestant religious revival that emphasized individual piety, personal salvation, and moral reform. Helped spur social reform movements like abolition, temperance, and women’s rights.
Second Great Awakening
198
A later wave of legislation under FDR, including expanded social welfare benefits, stronger labor protections, and additional relief programs. Pivotal in shaping modern social and economic policies.
Second New Deal
199
Growing regional differences, particularly between the North (industrializing), the South (agrarian, slaveholding), and the West (expanding frontier). These differences contributed to political tensions and would eventually lead to the Civil War.
Sectionalism
200
Criminalized making “false, scandalous, or malicious” statements against the government or its officials. Seen by many as a violation of free speech and press. Contributed to a backlash against Adams’s party.
Sedition Act
201
An uprising by indebted farmers in Massachusetts protesting high taxes and economic injustices. Exposed the weakness of the federal government under the Articles of Confederation, spurring calls for a new constitution.
Shays’ Rebellion
202
The expansion of slavery into new territories became a contentious matter, dividing the nation into pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions. Multiple compromises attempted to resolve these disputes but ultimately failed to prevent escalating tensions.
Slavery as a Major Political Issue
203
Established a government pension system for retirees, unemployment insurance, and aid for vulnerable populations. Became a cornerstone of America’s social safety net.
Social Security Act
204
A secret organization that formed to oppose British taxation and interference in colonial affairs. Members organized boycotts, intimidated tax collectors, and helped unify colonial resistance.
Sons of Liberty
205
Colonies primarily established for economic reasons due to a warm climate, fertile soil, and a long growing season. Relied heavily on plantation agriculture (tobacco, rice, indigo) and large labor forces—initially indentured servants, later enslaved Africans. Early relations with American Indians deteriorated as English settlers expanded into native lands.
Southern Colonies
206
A short conflict in which the U.S. supported Cuban independence from Spain. Triggered partly by sensationalist journalism and the sinking of the USS Maine. Victory gave the United States possessions such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.
Spanish American War
207
The first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union (1957), sparking the Space Race with the U.S. and leading to increased American investment in science and technology education and research.
Sputnik I
208
A British tax law requiring specially stamped paper for printed materials like newspapers and legal documents. Colonists argued it was taxation without representation, forming groups like the Sons of Liberty in protest. Widespread boycotts and resistance led to its repeal.
Stamp Act
209
Rapidly developed alongside railroad expansion. Innovations in steel production led to cheaper, stronger steel, vital for infrastructure, machinery, and construction. Major figures included Andrew Carnegie, who used vertical integration to dominate the market.
Steel Industry
210
Many investors bought stocks on margin, driving prices up artificially. When confidence faltered, panic selling ensued, culminating in the 1929 crash (“Black Tuesday”), wiping out fortunes and damaging the banking system.
Stock Market Speculation & Crash
211
A key Confederate general noted for his steadfastness in battle. Accidentally shot by his own troops, his death was a blow to Southern morale.
Stonewall Jackson
212
Revolutionized long-distance communication via coded signals over wire. Enabled faster business operations and news dissemination, helping unify distant parts of the country.
Telegraph
213
Invention that allowed person-to-person voice communication over wires. Invented by Alexander Graham Bell, it further reduced distances and facilitated economic growth.
Telephone
214
Social and political movement aiming to curb or eliminate alcohol consumption, driven partly by religious revivalism and concern over social problems linked to drinking.
Temperance
215
A coordinated series of North Vietnamese and Viet Cong attacks on key South Vietnamese cities in 1968. Although ultimately repelled, the offensive shocked the American public and eroded support for the war effort.
Tet Offensive
216
Often referred to as triangular trade. Goods such as rum, textiles, and manufactured items were shipped from Europe to Africa, exchanged for enslaved Africans, who were then transported to the Americas. In the colonies, enslaved people were sold, and raw materials like tobacco, sugar, and cotton were shipped back to Europe, completing the cycle.
Trans-Atlantic Trade
217
Completed in 1869, linking the East and West coasts. It boosted commerce, encouraged migration to the West, and symbolized national unity and industrial might.
Transcontinental Railroad
218
Officially ended the War of 1812, essentially returning relations between Britain and the U.S. to prewar conditions. While no territory changed hands, the conflict’s end allowed the U.S. to develop greater national cohesion.
Treaty of Ghent
219
Ended the French & Indian War. France surrendered its North American holdings, including Canada and land east of the Mississippi River, to Britain. This increased British control over the colonies but also led to new taxation policies that colonists resented.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
220
Formally ended the American Revolution. Britain recognized U.S. independence and granted territory to the Mississippi River. Spain regained Florida, and other land shifts occurred among European powers.
Treaty of Paris (1783)
221
Ended World War I but imposed punitive terms on Germany, including reparations. Created the League of Nations, though the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty.
Treaty of Versailles
222
Declared U.S. support for countries threatened by communism, starting with Greece and Turkey. Marked a major shift toward global engagement and an active effort to block Soviet expansion.
Truman Doctrine
223
Longstanding American reluctance to involve itself in European conflicts. Dominant at various times, such as in the early years of World War I and before U.S. entry into World War II.
U.S. Neutrality (Isolationism)
224
A Union general who achieved major victories at battles like Vicksburg and forced the Confederate surrender at Appomattox. Later became president, overseeing the early years of Reconstruction.
Ulysses S. Grant
225
An international organization focused on promoting peace, security, and cooperation that was funded after Wrold War II.
United Nations
226
A wartime practice, notably by Germany in World War I, of sinking any vessel without warning, including merchant and passenger ships. Incidents like the sinking of the Lusitania helped push the U.S. into the war.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
227
A muckraking journalist whose novel The Jungle exposed unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry. His work led to public outrage and the passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act.
Upton Sinclair
228
The Continental Army’s winter camp where soldiers endured severe conditions such as cold, disease, and shortages of supplies. Though morale was low, the intense drilling under leaders like Washington and von Steuben led to a stronger, more cohesive force.
Valley Forge
229
A Cold War proxy conflicct in which the U.S. supported the South against the Communist North. It was a long, controversial war that led to widespread protest and ended with U.S. withdrawal (and the South falling to the North after that).
Vietnam War
230
A joint-stock company chartered by King James I to estbalish English colonies in North America. It founded Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement.
Virginia Company
231
Landmark law banning literacy tests and other discriminatory practices that kept black people from voting. It also gave the federal government the power to oversee elections in areas with histories of voter suppression.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
232
After defeating Spain, the U.S. took control of the Philippines instead of granting independence, leading to a bloody insurgency by Filipino nationalists. Demonstrated the controversial nature of American expansion.
War in the Philippines
233
Sparked by issues including British interference with American shipping and the impressment of U.S. sailors. Ended without major territorial changes, but boosted national pride and manufacturing growth. The Treaty of Ghent restored the status quo.
War of 1812
234
Initiated after the 9/11 attacks to combat terrorist groups worldwide. Included military operations in Afghanistan and significant changes in domestic security measures.
War on Terrorism
235
George Washington was chosen to lead the colonial forces during the American Revolution. Despite limited supplies and training, he held the army together through difficult conditions, ultimately guiding it to victory over the British.
Washington & the Continental Army
236
Examples set by Washington that shaped the presidency, including forming a cabinet of advisors, limiting himself to two terms, remaining neutral in foreign conflicts, and adopting more democratic forms of address (such as “Mr. President”).
Washington’s Precedents
237
Began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters and escalated into a major political scandal. Resulted in President Nixon’s resignation in 1974 after evidence of a cover-up was revealed.
Watergate Scandal
238
A domestic uprising in response to a federal tax on whiskey. Washington’s move to send federal troops to quell the rebellion demonstrated the new national government’s ability and willingness to enforce its laws.
Whiskey Rebellion
239
Union general known for his “total war” strategy, capturing and burning Atlanta, then marching to the sea to cripple Confederate infrastructure and morale. Aided Lincoln’s reelection with his successful campaigns.
William T. Sherman
240
Organized effort to secure women’s right to vote and participate in politics. Began gathering momentum alongside other reform movements, leading eventually to the passage of the 19th Amendment.
Women’s Suffrage Movement
241
Global conflict from 1914 to 1918. The U.S. remained neutral initially but entered in 1917, swayed by unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram. The war ended with an armistice on November 11, 1918, and the subsequent peace negotiations shaped the interwar period.
World War I
242
Global conflict from 1939 to 1945. The U.S. joined after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. The Allied victory reshaped global politics, leading to the Cold War and significant social changes at home.
World War II
243
A diplomatic scandal involving French agents (coded as X, Y, and Z) who demanded bribes before negotiating. Heightened anti-French sentiment in the United States, prompting the buildup of the U.S. Navy.
XYZ Affair
244
A 1945 meeting between Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to discuss post-WWII plans for Europe, especially Germany and the United Nations.
Yalta Conference
245
Sensationalized and exaggerated news reporting used in the late 1800s, esepcially associated with the lead-up to the Spanish-American War and sinking of the U.S.S. Maine.
Yellow Journalism
246
A secret proposal from Germany to Mexico, urging Mexico to attack the U.S. in exchange for territorial rewards. The message’s interception and publication swayed American opinion in favor of entering WWI.
Zimmermann Telegram
