Western Flashcards
how many bones are in the body?
206
how many cervical bones and cervical nerves?
7 cervical vertebrae
8 cervical nerves
floating ribs:
how many? how many pairs? which ones?
11th and 12th rib
2 pairs
4 ribs
true ribs
are connected directly to the sternum
false ribs
connected by cartilage to the 7th rib
-8th, 9th, 10th rib
carpal bones: names and how many
8 carpal bones
Scaphoid,
lunate,
triquetrum,
pisiform
Trapezium,
trapezoid,
capitate,
hamate
Some Lovers Try Positions That They Cannot Handle
how many metacarpal bones?
5
how many phalange bones?
14
(each finger has 3, thumb has 2)
largest bone?
femur
medial malleolus is connected to?
tibia
lateral malleolus is connected to?
fibula
how many tarsal bones? and names
7
talus
Calcaneus
Navicular
medial cuneiform
intermediate cuneiform
lateral cuneiform
Cuboid
Tiger Cubs Need MILC
how many metatarsal bones
5
how many toe bones
14
the bone named vemur is located where?
nose bridge
the two floating bones are:
hyoid
pisiform (wrist)
head of the clavicle?
acromion
head of sternum?
manubrium
head of ulna?
olecranon
head of femur?
great trochanter
strongest muscle
soleus
rotator cuff muscles
names and quantity
4
SITS
supraspinatus
infraspinatus
teres minor
subscapularis
flow of blood
cranial nerves
growth hormone (gh)
-from anterior pituitary
-in muscle
-in adipose tissue
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
from ant. pituitary to thyroid, releases:
–thyroxin = (t3/t4, metabolism)
–calcitonin
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
-from anterior pituitary
adrenal cortex releases:
1. mineralocorticoids (aldosterone, reabsorbs Na, if Na stays so does water, and BP raises)
2. glucocorticoids (cortisol–anti inflammatory, breaks down carbs and lipids,)
3. androgens (sex hormones - testosterone, estrogen)
Oxytocin
-posterior pituitary
-baby delivery
-cxn of uterus
-bonding after birth
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
-posterior pituitary
- anti-diuretic (prevents urination when BP is low)
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
-intermediate
-melanocytes, skin, skin produces melanin
Epinephrine
-adrenal medulla
- BP increases, pupils dilate, fight or flight response, increase blood sugar levels
Norepinephrine
-adrenal medulla
- maintains normal blood sugar, sleep, wake cycles, mood, memory
endocrine vs exocrine
endocrine = hormones
exocrine = enzymes
calcitonin effect on osteoclasts
calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, lowers blood calcium
parathyroid effect on osteoclasts
parathyroid promotes osteoclasts, increases blood calcium
glucagon is released from ____ cells in the _____during ____
alpha cells in the pancreas
during fasting/starving
insulin is released from ____ cells in the ____ during _____
beta cells in the pancreas
during overeating
somatostatin is released from ____ and does what?
pancreas
inhibits the two other hormones (insulin and glucagon)
glycogen
stored sugar (liver and muscles)
glucagon
breaks down sugar and converts glycogen to glucose, increases blood sugar
insulin
converts glucose to glycogen, lowers blood sugar
glycogenolysis
done by glucagon
glycogenesis
done by insulin
erythropoetin
a hormone released by kidney to promote production of RBCs
Calcitriol
hormone released from kidney, regulates calcium, reabsorbs remaining Ca in intestines
Renin
enzyme from kidney that raises BP
RAA (renin angiotensin aldosterone) = how kd is involved in BP regulation,
activates chain rx–adrenal cortex releases aldosterone
Pineal gland secretes
melatonin for circadian rhythm
4 hormones that increase blood sugar
epinephrine
norepinephrine
cortisol
glucagon
skin
vitamin d
&
melanin
heart is bw which ribs?
3rd-5th ICS
where are the kidneys? which is lower?
t12-l3
right is sl lower bc of liver (left is sl higher)
dermatomes: on hand
c6
c7
c8
dermatome c6:
to the thumb
dermatome c7:
index finger, middle finger, half of ring finger
dermatome c8:
other half of ring finger, pinkie finger
dermatome L4:
front of knee
dermatome S 1 and 2:
hamstrings/back of legs
RUQ
liver
GB
right kidney
head of pancreas
duodenum
LUQ
stomach
spleen
body of pancreas
left kidney
RLQ
appendix
right ovary
right ureter
caecum
LLQ
descending colon
sigmoid colon
left ovary and tube
left ureter
coronal/frontal view
divides front and back
sagittal/lateral view
divides left and right
transverse/axial view
divides above and below
Cranial Nerve I
-olfactory
-sensory nerve
-smell
Cranial Nerve II
-optic
-sensory nerve
-vision and pupillary reaction
Cranial Nerve III
-oculomotor
-motor nerve
-innervates muscles that move eyeball, also pupillary action (dilate/constrict)
-controls most eye muscles
-PERRLA (pupils equal round reaction to light accomodation) –follow pen left, right, up, down
cranial nerve IV
-trochlear
-motor nerve
-lateral and downward movement of eye
-test: follow pen with eyes
4
cranial nerve V
-trigeminal
-both motor and sensory nerve
-main sensory nerve of face and mouth
-motor: controls muscles of the jaw, chewing
-clench jaw, stroke check
5
cranial nerve VI
-abducens
-motor nerve
-lateral movement of eye
-follow pen with eyes moving out to side
6
cranial nerve VII
-facial
-both sensory and motor
-sensory: anterior 2/3 of tongue taste receptors. motor: muscles of facial expression
-bell’s palsy
-ask patient to smile/frown
7
cranial nerve VIII
-vestibulocochlear
-sensory nerve
-hearing and equilibrium
-romberg’s test (feet together, eyes closed), ask about hearing changes
(8–like 2 ears together)
cranial nerve IX
-glossopharyngeal
-both motor and sensory
-motor: swallow, parotid (salivary) gland
-sensory: posterior 1/3 of tongue, bitter taste
-gag reflecx, say “aah” should see uvula rise
9
cranial nerve X
-vagus
-both sensory and motor nerve
-innervation of pharynx, larynx, visceral organs, abdomen; most of parasympathetic nervous system
-gag reflex, ask patient to swallow, hyoid bone should move
-longest nerve, only one to come out of skull
10
cranial nerve XI
-accessory
-motor nerve
-posture, innervates larynx, pharynx, traps and SCM
-shrug shoulders, rotate head against resistance
11
cranial nerve XII
-hypoglossal
-motor nerve
-innervates tongue muscles
-impairment=inarticulate speech,
-stick out tongue, move up/down/left/right
12
double vision
4
trochlear (2x2=4)
water soluble vitamins
B
C
fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K
calcium deficiency =
hyperflexia
magnesium deficiency =
Weakness, fatigue
Sodium deficiency =
lack of water
iron & deficiency
-required for oxygen transport
-xu: anemia, fatigue, weakness, anorexia, pica, hair loss, best absorbed w vitamin c
iodine & deficiency
-required for thyroid hormones
-xu: goiter, hypothyroidism
vitamin A
retinol
beta carotene
& deficiency
-required for vision, growth/dvlpmnt of skeletal and epithelial tissue, maintain integrity of mucous membranes required for immune system, hormone synthesis in reproductive system
xu: night blindness, dry eyes, keritinization of cornea cells, respiratory infections, reduced immunity, diarrhea, hyperkeratosis, loss of tooth enamel, loss of bone mass
vitamin b12
cyano- or methyl - cobalamin
and deficiency
-required for integrity of myelin sheath, used in carbohydrate metabolism
-xu: pernicious anemia, peripheral neuropathy, fatigue, depression, confusion, memory loss, glossitis, impaired WBCs
vitamin c
ascorbic acid
& deficiency
-collagen synthesis, major antioxidant, regulate immune system, helps absorb iron, aids steroid hormone and norepinephrine synthesis, acts as antihistamine
-xu: scurvy, bleeding gums, listlessness, poor wound healing, easy bruising, muscle cramps, dry skin
vitamin d (d3)
cholecalciferol
ergosterol (d2)
and deficiency
-increase absorb of calcium in ints & resorption of ca in bones
xu: rickets, osteomalacia
vitamin e
tocopherol
& deficiency
- antioxidant
-dry skin, easy bruising
(all skin related)
vitamin k
phylloquinone
& deficiency
-important clotting co factor
helps prevent kd stones
-hemorrhagic dz of newborn, easy bleeding, osteoporosis
trisomy 21
down syndrome
triple chromosomes on 21, instead of double
total 47 chromosomes
chromosomes
46 total
23 from each parent
22 autosomes, 1 is sex chromosome
DNA
adenine – thymine
cytosine – guanine
RNA
adenine – uracil
guanine –cytosine
cell atrophy:
decrease in cell size, like in disuse, denervation, decreased nutrition, or ischemia
cell hypertrophy:
increase in cell size (normal or pathogenic)
cell hyperplasia:
increase in cell number (normal or pathogenic)
cell metaplasia:
changing of one adult cell type to another
(scarring, cancer)
cell dysplasia:
deranged growth of cells, varies in size/shape, may be reversible may be cancer
cell anaplasia:
reversal of differentiation in cells
characteristic of malignant tumors
hypoxia:
insufficient Oxygen in tissues; disrupts ability to make ATP,
less O in blood
ischemia:
enough O in blood, but clots block O from arriving to tissues
impaired O supply, impaired removal of metabolic end by products – acid accumulation can cause cellular death
gangrene
often in diabetic patients, large area of cell death
necrosis
death of body tissue
macrophages
cleaners
expel as pus
RBCs:
anucleus
bioconcave
*no mitochondria
live 120 days
contain hemoglobin (O and red color)
carry oxygen and CO2
iron deficiency anemia
shows as microcytic, hypochromic, most common form of anemia
universal blood donor type
type O-
universal blood recipient type
AB+
WBC normal range
5,000-10,000/mL
above= inflammation
below= poor immunity
granulocytes
neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
WBCs
neutrophils
bacteria and fungi
basophils
chronic inflammation, iron deficiency
eosinophils
allergic reactions and parasitic infections
monocytes
innate and adaptive immunity
elevated with malignancy
lymphocytes
elevates due to viral infection
besides a, b, ab, and o, what other blood type is there?
rh- and rh+
84-99% is rh+
hallmarks of acute inflammation
swelling
redness
heat
pain
innate immunity
natural resistance at time of birth, includes skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes, NK, cells
adaptive/acquired immunity
gained over experience
passive= natural, like through breastfeeding or induced like in an anti-serum injection
passive is short term immunity
active=natural (had condition and overcame it) or induced (vaccines)
active in long lasting immunity
two types: humoral (B cells) and cell-mediated (T cells) (lymphocytes)
humoral immunity
B cells are produced in bone marrow and stored in lymph nodes and spleen
have specific receptors for antigen recognition, mature into plasma cells that then create antibodies
humoral immunity
IgM
FIRST immunoglobulin to respond (M=immediate)
has more binding sites, nonspecific, first type made my newborns
humoral immunity
IgG
2nd to appear
predominant type
specific, long lasting
crosses placenta
passive immunity to fetus
(g=gestational)
humoral immunity
IgA
primary defense against local infections in mucosal tissues (ex: colostrum)
humoral immunity
IgE
specific to inflammation
allergy & parasite
triggers histamine response
humoral immunity
IgD
helps signal B cell activation, may have role in some allergic rxns or respiratory immunity
least common
allergies:
type I
Allergy (immediate)
onset: within a min or late phase 2-4 hrs
ex: food/drug/insect allergies, atopy, anaphylaxis
allergies:
type IV
cell mediated allergy
onset: 2-3 days
ex: poison ivy, poison oak
b12 xu anemia
absorbed in SI by intrinsic factors released by stomach
aka pernicious anemia
thrombocytes
clotting
vitamin k and calcium
brain and nervous system:
brainstem
contains cranial nerves III-XII
contains medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, main motor/sensory innervation of face/neck
brain and nervous system:
diencephalon
contains thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland
brain and nervous system:
hypothalamus
controls hormones, body temp, hunger, thirst
brain and nervous system:
limbic system
supports emotions
brain and nervous system:
basal ganglia
contains substantia nigra
assoc with voluntary motor control, learning, emotions, and cognition
*assoc with Parkinson’s
brain and nervous system:
cerebral cortex
contains 4 lobes:
-frontal: thinking
-temporal: visual memories, understanding language
-parietal: sense of touch
-occipital: visual cortex
brain and nervous system:
cerebellum
major role in motor coordination
(cerebella beautiful dancer with amazing coordination)
brain and nervous system:
corpus collosum
wide band of connective fibers that join left and right hemispheres
brain and nervous system:
surrounding the brain: (layers)
outer = dura mater
–subdural space
middle = arachnoid
–subarchnoid space
inner = pia mater
brain and nervous system:
myelin
protective outer covering of axon
nerve conductance travels faster on axons with myelin
brain and nervous system:
efferent vs afferent nerves
Efferent: motor neurons, Exit to CNS to stimulate muscles or glands via Ventral horn of spinal cord (motor moves)
Afferent: sensory neurons, carry impulses from the body to the CNS via Dorsal root horn of spinal cord
afferent= touch something hot
efferent = pull hand away
brain and nervous system:
somatic nervous system controls…
controls voluntary actions
brain and nervous system:
autonomic nervous system controls….
and two parts are…
involuntary actions.
sympathetic:
is yang. it readies the body for sudden action, dilates pupils and bronchi, increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, increases renin, increase glycogen to glucose, inhibits digestion and peristalsis, relaxes bladder, promotes ejaculation,
relies on norepinephrine released by adrenergic nerves)
parasympathetic:
is yin. resting state. pupils and bronchi constrict,, heart rate lowers, saliva production and digestion increase, glucose converts to glycogen in liver, bladder constricts,
relies on acetylcholine released by cholinergic nerves
circulatory system:
heart is located:
bw the 3rd and 5th ics
apex is near the 5th pointing to the left
circulatory system:
heart layers
from outside in:
pericardium
myocardium
endocardium
circulatory system:
order of blood flow
-deoxygenated blood from the head and the body enter the right atrium through the superior and inferior vena cava
-blood goes from right atrium through tricuspid valve to right ventricle , out the pulmonary artery to the lungs to pick up oxygen (capillary level of lungs)
-oxygenated blood returns to the heart via pulmonary vein into the left atrium
-blood moves from left atrium through mitral valve to the left ventricle where it is then pumped out the chamber through the aorta to the rest of the body
circulatory system:
normal blood pressure
120/80
high = 140/90
very high = 180/120
low= 90/60
circulatory system:
layers of all blood vessels except capillaries
tunica adventitia
tunica media (thicker than veins)
tunica intima
circulatory system:
walls of capillaries
single layer endothelial cells, not tightly connected
circulatory system:
veins in lower limbs have ___
valves
circulatory system:
what’s different about artery walls?
they have more elastic (collagen) fibers bc they have to adjust to different changes in blood pressure (operate under high pressure system)
circulatory system:
stroke volume (SV) is the ____
amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle in one heartbeat
circulatory system:
systolic vs diastolic
systolic - push
diastolic - relax
circulatory system:
baroreceptors vs chemoreceptors
baro=physiology
chemo= chemistry
baroreceptors: located in carotid and aorta, respond to change in stretch of blood vessel, adapt to prolonged change
chemoreceptors: located in carotids and aorta, respond to concentration changes in oxygen, CO2, and H+
circulatory system:
lymph vessels travel where? and collect what? and where do they go?
travel along blood vessels and collect this excess fluid along with osmotically large particles. they then pass through lymph nodes (sites for collecting pieces of cells and foreign particles)
-spleen is secondary lymphoid organ
-filtered lymph drains into subclavian vein on the right and the internal jugular on the left.
circulatory system:
veins and arteries are usually bilateral. what is the exception?
the subclavian vein on the right but the internal jugular on the left.
circulatory system:
main pacemaker of the heart is the:
and what does it do?
SA Node
generate impulse that moves down AV bundle to the Purkinje fibers.
If SA node fails, the cells in the AV bundle will stimulate an impulse. if the AV bundle fails, the Purkinje fibers will generate contraction (they have less action potential so the force is not as strong)
circulatory system:
when does fibrillation occur?
when the cells of the heart are not in sync, each cell fires on its own resulting in uncoordinated and ineffective heart beat
intermittent pulse in TCM
circulatory system:
what is an electrocardiogram (ECG) and what is a normal pattern?
a recording of the electrical changes in the heart.
normal pattern includes several deflections. described as pqrst, the P portion of the ECG represents the contraction of the atrium, (depolarization of SA node). QRS represents depolarization of ventricles. T represents repolarization of ventricles
circulatory system:
hypertension
140/90
severe= 180/20 ==seek emergency care, do not treat
circulatory system:
hypotension
90/60
circulatory system:
what is orthostatic hypotension?
abnormal drop in blood pressure upon positional change, from lying/seated to standing
systolic must drop 20 mmHg or more, diastolic must drop 10 mmHg or more to qualify.
AKA drop of 20/10
pulmonary system:
inhalation vs exhalation: which is passive and active?
inspiration = active
(diaphragm descends, thoracic cavity expands, pressure decreases and air flows in)
exhalation = passive
(recoil)
pulmonary system:
rhythm of breathing is controlled by_____
+other info
dorsal group of the medulla
ventral group is only activated in the cases of forced inhalation or exhalation. central chemoreceptors are sensitive to short-term. changes in CO2.
CO2 concentration is the primary motivator to breathe.
peripheral receptors are sensitive to O2 concentration.
other factors to breathing include stretch receptors in lungs, irritant receptors, emotion, pain, temperature
pulmonary system:
lung has how many lobes? (each side)
3 lobes in right lung
2 lobes in left lung (make room for heart)
digestive system:
upper GI tract includes:
mouth:
saliva for protection, lubrication, digestion, chewing, swallowing, uses cranial nerves V, IX, X, XII
esophagus: moving food to stomach via peristalsis; upper and lower sphincters controlled by vagus nerve
stomach: connected to esophagus via cardiac sphincter, to SI via pyloric sphincter. secretes: HCL and intrinsic factor, chief cells make pepsinogen
digestive system:
parts of stomach
fundus
body
cardia
pyloris
digestive system:
*middle GI tract
Small intestine! = primary site of food digestion and absorption
duodenum: secretes mucous, hormones cholecytstokinin, gastrin, secretin, receives secretions from liver and pancreas
jejunum: secretes mucus, LONGEST portion of small intestine, main site of nutrient absorption
ileum: connects to cecum via iliocecal valve, sites of B12 ABSORPTION and resorption of bile salts
digestive system:
lower GI tract:
large intestine!
consists of cecum, appendix, ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon, rectum
secretes mucus, absorbs water and electrolytes, moves stool
hepatobiliary system:
what’s the largest organ located within the rib cage?
liver
hepatobiliary system:
liver lobules are surrounded by ____ and consist of _____
liver lobules are surrounded by portal space and consist of hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile ductiles
hepatobiliary system:
fx of liver:
metabolizes drugs/alcohol, converts lipid soluble to water solube,
modifies cytochrome P450
hepatobiliary system:
which organ makes bile for fat digestion?
liver
pancreas:
is the pancreas an exocrine or endocrine organ?
it is BOTH!
pancreas:
endocrine secretions:
glucagon, insulin, somatostatin
pancreas:
exocrine secretions
bicarbonates (carbon, carbs)
proteolytic enzymes
(protein)
amylase
lipase (fats)
hormones:
what are hormones?
hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands in response to specific stimuli
hormones:
functions of hormones (5)
- modulate physiological processes (do not initiate)
- are present in body fluid at all time (in some quantity)
***3. travel via bloodstream - have local or general effects
- local hormones do not travel - either paracrine (used nearby) or autocrine (used by organ producing it)
hormones:
negative vs positive feedback
negative: an increase in the hormone results in the lowering production of hormone; most common hormonal mechanism
positive: increase in hormone leads to increased production, such as with oxytocin
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Growth Hormone (gh)
–anterior pituitary gland!
– goes to liver which makes IGF-1 (insulin like growth factor)
–stimulates growth, cellular reproduction, regeneration
affects height, length of bones, healing
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
–anterior pituitary gland!
–thyroid
–stimulates thyroid to release thyroxin
–important for metabolism
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
–anterior pituitary gland!
–adrenal cortex
–signals to adrenal cortex to secrete steroid hormones
–important for managing stress, blood pressure, water balance, reproduction
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Prolactin (PRL)
–anterior pituitary gland!
–breasts
–milk production
–if not lactating, high levels often due to pituitary tumor
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Lutenizing Hormone
(LH)
–anterior pituitary gland!
–gonads
–maturation of sex cells
–female: ovulation
male: secretion of androgens
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
–anterior pituitary gland
–gonads
–maturation of sex cells
–female: menstruation, ova, secretion of androgens, estrogen, progesterone
Male: maturation of sperm, production of androgen binding protein
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
–intermediate lobe of pituitary gland
–skin cells
–determines skin pigmentation
–skin color determined by amount of melanin produced, not by number of melanocytes
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Oxytocin (OT)
–posterior pituitary!
–reproductive organs
–contraction of uterus, promote ejection of milk
–bonding hormone, causes a desire to cuddle, groom and bond with a mate
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
–posterior pituitary
–kidneys
–concentrates urine, boosts reabsorption of water
–structurally similar to OT
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Melatonin
–Pineal Gland
–CNS
–helps regulate the circadian rhythm
–influenced by artificial and UV light; derived from serotonin
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
thyroxin, thyroxine, and triiodothyromine
–thyroid
–many target cells
–regulates metabolism
–requires iodine, all cells need thyroid hormones
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
calcitonin
–thyroid
–blood and kidneys
–lowers blood calcium by reducing osteoclast activity, lowers absorption in intestines/kidneys
–along with parathyroid hormones, regulates blood calcium level
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
parathyroid hormone, parathormone (PTH)
–parathyroid gland
–target: bones and kidneys
–signals osteoclasts to release calcium, enhances intestinal absorption and kidney resorption of calcium
–increases activity of enzyme required to change vit D to its active form
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
thymic hormone - thymosin, thymopoetin
–thymus
–target: lymph
–stimulates t-cell maturation
–along with bone marrow, primary lymph organ
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
glucagon
–from pancreas alpha cells
–target = liver
–conversion of glycogen to glucose
–increase blood sugar
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
insulin
–from pancreas beta cells
–target = body cells
–converts glucose to glycogen or fat, enables cellular uptake of glucose
–lowers blood sugar
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
somatostatin
–from pancreas delta cells
–target = digestive system
–inhibits release GI hormones, insulin, and glucagon
–hypothalamus also releases somatostatin to inhibit GH, TSH, PRL
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Mineralcorticoids – aldosterone
–adrenal cortex
–target = blood
–regulates sodium/water balance, long term regulation BP
–all adrenal cortex hormones originally derive from cholesterol
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Glucocorticoids – cortisol
–adrenal cortex
–blood, lymph
–mobilization of fats, proteins, carbs
–vital for stress response, anti-inflammatory
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Sex hormones – DHEA, androgens
–adrenal cortex
–target = reproductive organs
–gives rise to sex characteristics
–DHEA is precursor for sex hormones, main androgen is testosterone
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Catecholamines -
epinephrine, norepinephrine
–adrenal medulla
–target = blood
–increases heart rate, bp, resp rate, blood glucose, relaxes smooth muscle of bladder and GI tract
–prepares for fight, flight, or fright
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Renin
–kidney
–target = adrenal cortex
–signals to adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
–enzyme, not a hormone, but part of RAA system
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Erythropoietin
–kidney
–target = bone marrow
–stimulates RBC production
–kidney failure cal lead to low RBC
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Calcitriol
–kidney
–target = intestines
–assists calcium absorp in intestines and reabsorption from renal tubules
–biologically active form of Vit D
Endocrine Gland:
what is this and where is it released from?
Vit D
–Skin
–target = intestines
–assists calcium absorp in intestines and reabsorption from renal tubules
–derived from cholesterol, acts as hormone
Adrenal Glands:
3 zones of the adrenal cortex:
- zona glomerulosa: mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) regulated by renin-angiotensis (RAA) and blood potassium; promotes sodium retention by the distal tubules
- zona fasciculata: glucocorticoids (cortisol), regulated by negative feedback of hypothalamus-pituitary adrenal system, peak level 30-60min after waking (testing often recommended 6-8am, increases glycemia , breakdown of protein, mobilization of fatty acids, suppresses macrophage activity (antiinflammatory) and contributes to emotional stability by helping to regulate blood sugar
- zona reticularis: sex hormones (DHEA, pregnenolone), stimulates gonads to make sex hormones and contributes to secondary sexual characteristics
true of false:
a person can live without an adrenal medulla, but loss of adrenal cortex can be fatal
true
kidneys:
approx where are kidneys located?
level with T12-L3
kidneys:
which kidney is slightly lower?
right kidney is sl lower than left due to displacement from liver
kidneys:
what is renin?
an enzyme released by kidney when renal blood flow is low, either from low blood volume or a drop in blood pressure.
the filer of the kidney is called:
glomerulus
kidneys:
what do they kidneys reabsorb and excrete?
reabsorb water, glucose, amino acids, bicarbonates, Na+ Cl- Ca ++, Mg++, K+
excrete nitrogenous waste, uric acid, hydrogen ions, Na+, Cl-, K+
Acid-base Balance:
what is the largest buffer system, regulated by plasma proteins (mainly albumin)
Protein Buffer System
Acid-base Balance:
what is the normal blood pH of the body?
7.35-7.45
Acid-base Balance:
what is the most important buffer system, in lungs and kidneys,
H2CO3 into HCO3- (bicarbonate and a base)
bicarbonate buffer system
Acid-base Balance:
which buffer system is in the kidneys
phosphate buffer system
Acid-base Balance:
decrease in pH due to increase in CO2, occurs in emphysema
respiratory acidosis
Acid-base Balance:
increase in pH due to decrease of CO2, occurs in hyperventilation, anxiety
Respiratory alkalosis
Acid-base Balance:
decrease of pH due to less HCO3-, in prolonged diarrhea, increase of acids (lactic acid)
metabolic acidosis
Acid-base Balance:
increase pH due to more bicarbonate, as in excess antacid use, loss of acids from vomiting stomach contents, potassium loss through some diuretics
metabolic alkalosis
Water Balance:
what regulates water output?
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Water Balance:
when is ADH released?
if there is a decrease in blood volume or blood pressure
(post. pituitary releases ADH, keeps water in body)
Urinary Bladder:
how much urine does the bladder need to signal the urge to urinate?
150-300mL
Urinary Bladder:
where is the control of the urinary reflex?
in spinal cord at level S2-S4
Menstrual Cycle:
how many days does ovulation occur before onset of menses?
14 days
Menstrual Cycle:
the follicular phase is in which half of cycle?
first half
day 1 to ovulation
estrogen dominates, body temp is lower
of days depends on length of cycle
Menstrual Cycle:
the luteal phase is in which half of cycle?
second half
ovulation to onset of menses
progesterone dominates, body temp is higher
luteal phase is 14 days
Menstrual Cycle:
what happens days 1-5?
FSH and LH are low, menstruation occuring
Menstrual Cycle:
what happens days 5-7
egg follicle getting bigger, more FSH, increased estrogen promotes proliferation of endometrium, vaginal secretion creamy to sticky (egg white)
Menstrual Cycle:
what happens day 14?
LH surges, developed follicle released, ovulation occurs, temp spikes1 degree, secretion remains sticky/stretchy
Menstrual Cycle:
days 15-20
progesterone increases
increase in blood vessels, endometrium prepares to receive fertilized egg, vag fluids start to become dry interspersed with sticky
Menstrual Cycle:
days 21-22
if no fertilization, progesterone drops , corpus luteum dissolves, blood vessels shrink, thinner vag secretions.
if conception, corpus luteum will continue to produce preogesterone for 3 months until the placenta makes progrsterone
cancer:
benign
differentiated cells, slow growth, no metastasis, no tissue destruction, defined edges, growth by expansion
cancer:
malignant
cells undifferentiated, faster growth, metastasis, tissue destruction, poorly defined edged, growth by infiltration
unintentional weight loss,
bone pain at night,
fever,
fatigue,
new onset persistent cough, blood in stools/urine, coughing up blood,
lump in breast or testes, changes in moles
are all:
cancer red flags
