week1 (ne biologija)

Question 1

specific bonds

Answer 1

bonds to particular individual

Question 2

when do specific bonds develop

Answer 2

6-7 months

Question 3

when does separation anxiety emerge

Answer 3

8 months

Question 4

criticism of Freud

Answer 4

too much emphasis on breastfeeding and mother-infant relationships

Question 5

learning theory approach

Answer 5

attempt to focus just on the infants’ behaviours and the ways in which the environment reinforces the

Question 6

criticisms of learning theory approaches

Answer 6

neglected cognitive aspects, difficulty explaining absue

Question 7

Ainsworth - definition of attachment

Answer 7

“an affectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one – a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time”

Question 8

how does Bowlby see caretakers

Answer 8

secure base from which the young can explore

Question 9

four phases of attachment

Answer 9

o Preattachment phase (birth – 6 weeks) – attachment-related behaviours but don’t seem to target them at particular individuals
o Attachment-in-the-making phase (6 weeks – 6-8 months) – infants start to use signals such as smiling and crying to focus on specific people
o Clear-cut attachment phase (6-8 months – 18 months-2 years) – infants stay near a particular person and by behaviours to maintain contact, the caregiver is a secure base
o Reciprocal relationships phase (18 months-2 years and older) – children take into account the parent’s needs and adjust their behaviour

Question 10

difference between attachment and dependency

Answer 10

dependency implies passivity

Question 11

attachment complex

Answer 11

the set of behaviours and mental states that are responsible for setting up and maintaining attachment, can vary across species

Question 12

when does the smile of recognition appear

Answer 12

6 months

Question 13

when most mothers view their infant’s smile the smile elicits high levels of neural activity in the reward regions of the mother’s brain

Answer 13

ventral striatum and the hypothalamus

Question 14

which hormone is involved in the connection of the mother and the infant

Answer 14

oxytocin

Question 15

history of clinging

Answer 15

emerged in primates 50 million years ago – ability to grab fur with their hands
o 40 million years ago – embracing their offspring back – mutual clinging
o 5 million years ago – great apes – direct gaze is no longer threatening
o Humans – disengage more easily from direct clinging while maintaining contact through gaze and vocalization

Question 16

at what age do infants prefer to look at cute faces

Answer 16

5 months

Question 17

at what age do infants show distress in the still face experiment

Answer 17

1.5 years

Question 18

after how many months are cultural differences obvious in parenting

Answer 18

3 months

Question 19

Social referencing

Answer 19

relying on the expression and behaviour of others for important information on how to interpret situations

Question 20

when do infants start using facial expressions of others

Answer 20

7 months

Question 21

joint attention

Answer 21

an infant and another person simultaneously attend to the same object or event
o Both partners understand that pointing or some other indication is meant to focus them on the same thing – communicative

Question 22

development of joint attention

Answer 22

critical components present as early as moments after birth (following other people’s gaze)
o Become better at it with time – at 3 months very good
o Gaze following a fragile skill before 2 months, strong development 2-8 months
o 9 months – gaze following develops into more full-fledged joint attention
 Appear at the same time as pointing

Question 23

7 components of parenting

Answer 23

o Nurturance – showing children warmth and responding to their needs and changing emotions; when failed – disengaged or intrusive
o Discipline – attempt to explain the reason for a punishment are more effective than punishments
o Teaching – questioning a child to find out where she’s coming from cognitively, less effective may instead take over a task without considering the child’s own mental state
o Language – adjusted to suit their age and situation; less effective – talk at their child without encouraging interaction
o Materials – materials that help children imagine, explore and interact with others; less effective – minimal support
o Monitoring – being aware of the child’s activities; low-monitoring may be barely aware or not have a sense of how a child spends their time
o Managing – arranging play dates or recurring activities; less effective – not plan or have a routine

Question 24

parenting styles

Answer 24

the ways in which the parents engage in behaviours and have attitudes towards their children that create a particular environment

Question 25

two ways in which parenting differs

Answer 25

warmth and responsiveness

Question 26

Authoritarian parents

Answer 26

• Low warmth and high control – order their children around, compliance without question
• Harsh – punishment and coercion, yelling
• Children tend to be more dependent and lack social competence in dealing with peers, passive and compliant with authority figures
• Adolescence – low self-esteem, more depression
• Boys tend to show more hostility, girls tend to set lower goals for achievement

Question 27

permissive parents

Answer 27

• High in warmth and low in control – few demands of their children and rarely attempt to monitor or control their behaviour
• Focus on helping to meet their needs and desires – not posing any restrictions, rarely discipline their children
• Children seem more immature and have trouble controlling their impulses, less likely to accept responsibility to their own actions
• Adolescents – likely to show problem behaviours, high self-esteem, low depression and better social skills

Question 28

authoritative parents

Answer 28

• High in warmth and control, but nuance – less rigid and overbearing than authoritarian parents
  o Set guidelines that are more flexible and will also listen to their children’s needs
  o Positive feedback and reward instead of punishment or coercion, discipline is consistent
• Warm and sensitive to their children’s mental states
• Children fare the best – independent, self-reliant, good self-control, do well in high school
  o Boys more socially responsible, girl more independent

Question 29

psychological vs behavioral control

Answer 29

• Psychological control – attempts to regulate behaviour with attempts to manipulate their feelings – withdrawing affection or inducing guilt and shame
  o More typical in authoritarian parents – depressive and anxious symptoms in children
• Behavioural control – regulating the child’s behaviour by setting guidelines
  o More common among authoritative parents

Question 30

neglectful parents

Answer 30

• Don’t interact much with their children – nonparenting, oblivious to the child’s needs and desires
• May be more likely among parents who struggle with their own problems
• Children fare badly – susceptible to peer pressure and engage more often in behaviours that don’t conform to adult norms
  o Girls more likely to be involved in peer groups whose norms are different from dominant ones in the culture

Question 31

families of higher SES use authoritative parenting more often

Answer 31

talked with their children more, half as much language forbidding actions, less physical coercion, 6 time more positive feedback

Question 32

ecological systems approach

Answer 32

emphasized that contextual factors (culture, social class) – crucial to understanding the child’s development

Question 33

butterfly effect (chaos theory)

Answer 33

how the system behaved in the past affects the present which affects the future
o Everyone in the system changes
o Interactions between many parts of the system – mutual interactions

Question 34

three types of effects of genotype on the environment

Answer 34

o Passive – parents provide both genes and environment (decreases with age)
o Evocative – child characteristics elicit reactions from others (constant with age)
o Active – a child seeks an environment appropriate to its genotype (increases with age)