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childhood: developmental > week1 > Flashcards

week1 Flashcards

1
Q

critical period

A

time frame in which certain kinds of experiences are essential for normal development

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2
Q

why the development unfolds the way it does - 2 examples

A

o Ex: kangaroos don’t need their eyesight when they’re entering their mother’s pouch but do need strong limbs to crawl up
o Ex: for humans – for newborns more important to have a functional sucking system than to recognise faces

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3
Q

two main influences of development

A

inputs and constraints

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4
Q

what are the inputs

A

organism’s genes, its environment + interaction

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5
Q

what’re the constraints

A

the need for viability throughout development, the need for specialized cells to serve particular function in the body and the need for certain sequential processes to occur at just the right time

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6
Q

environmental niches

A

different local environments

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7
Q

genes

A

inherited instructions for producing the protein that make up cells or for regulating whether other genes will be turned on or off

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8
Q

DNA

A

makes up genes, a long, double-stranded molecule consisting of specific sequence of just four different chemical bases

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9
Q

four chemical bases

A

adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine

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10
Q

structural sequence

A

directs the assembly of particular proteins (or parts of protein) which can give rise to traits in several ways

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11
Q

regulatory sequence

A

switch that determines whether the protein-coding genes will be active
o Entire genes can also serve a regulatory function by coding for a type of protein that can “flip the switch” in the regulatory sequence that adjusts another gene’s activity level
o 95% of human DNA is non-structural and probably regulatory

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12
Q

X DNA base pairs can fit inside a cell nucleus only 6 millionths of a meter across

A

3 billion

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13
Q

genome

A

the set of chromosomes in an individual organism

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14
Q

how many genes in our 46 chromosomes

A

20 000

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15
Q

number of genes - brain argument

A

this relatively low number means that most human brain structures are too complex to be specified by genes – overlooks the power of gene interactions and the ways in which the interplay can yield many distinct proteins

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16
Q

alleles

A

all the variations of a particular gene that can exist at a particular location on a chromosome

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17
Q

homozygous

A

both parents have contributed the same allele

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18
Q

hetereozygous

A

when each parent contributes a different allele of a particular gene – the interaction determines the outcomet

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19
Q

three types of alleles when heterozygous

A

o An allele can be dominant – its properties will be expressed preferentially
o The allele that’s not expressed is recessive
o They can also be codominant – both alleles are expressed at the same time

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20
Q

how are sex chromosomes an exception

A

two types of sex chromosomes – X and Y (females – XX, males XY) – females can only contribute the X chromosomes to their offspring and males can contribute either

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21
Q

what falls under “environment”

A

physical world in which the organism develops + chemicals after conception (male fetus experiences a very different hormonal environment due to the fetus’s own genetically triggered biochemical outputs)

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22
Q

prenatal environment influences

A

mother’s external environment – chemicals that the mother has intentionally consumed (nutrients, caffeine, alcholol) + ones that entered her body without her knowledge (food additives, air pollution, compounds that contact her skin) + the gender of the baby

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23
Q

genotype

A

genetic information encoded as particular alleles as an organism’s DNA (genome – genetic information that typifies a whole species)

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24
Q

phenotype

A

ways that the genetic information is expressed or manifested in an organism (anatomical structures, biochemical processes, behaviour)

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25
Q

what explains the differences between the genotype and the phenotype

A

environmental influences

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26
Q

regulatory cascades

A

genes’ intricate interaction patterns that form elaborate branching chains
 Small changes in the activity of one gene can influence other genes

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27
Q

viability

A

moment of fertilization until the birth the cells must stay alive by metabolizing nutrients and eliminating wastes – must have a way of circulating nutrients (needs muscle activity)
- Constraint on development – requires essential structures and functions to develop before others
o Ex: baby who gets oxygen through the umbilical cord  set of lungs after birth

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28
Q

canalization

A

the process through which cells get committed to becoming certain types

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29
Q

epigenetic regulation

A

changes in gene expression without changes to DNA sequences
 When a particular cell type has some genes turned off and others turned on by its surrounding chemical environment and then “freezes” that pattern of on-and-off genes

30
Q

methylination

A

methyl groups (specific carbon-hydrogen configurations) become attached to certain DNA base pairs

31
Q

nutrigenomics

A

a field that studies how foods a pregnant woman eats may influence the activity of the fetus’s genes and how its cells differentiate

32
Q

effects of a low protein diet during pregnancy

A

changes in fetal gene regulation that may lead to diabetes later in life

33
Q

heterochronic genes

A

genes that operate by regulating the activity of other genes

34
Q

four themes in early brain development

A

o Vital structures and systems develop first
o The later-developing brain structures tend to inhibit earlier-developing ones
o Sometimes “less is more”
o The speed and amount of communication between different brain regions increase over the course of development

35
Q

Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny pattern

A

the brain structures that are evolutionary older tend to mature earlier

36
Q

three major parts of the brain

A

brainstem, cerebellum, cerebrum

37
Q

brainstem

A

heart rate, breathing, swallowing, blood pressure, digestion, other nonvoluntary processes

38
Q

cerebellum

A

coordination of voluntary movement and integration of some sensory information with action

39
Q

cerebrum parts

A

basal ganglia (voluntary and involuntary movement), olfactory bulb (smell) and the cerebral cortex

40
Q

what connects the two hemispheres

A

corpus callosum

41
Q

four globes of hemispheres

A
  • Frontal lobe – planning, problem solving, regulating thoughts and emotions + posterior parts for motor activity and grammar
  • Parietal lobe – touch sensations, integrating visual and spatial information, processing some aspects of word meaning
  • Temporal lobe – auditory information and other aspects of language meaning
  • Occipital lobe – visual information
42
Q

pre-natal brain development timeline

A

o First few weeks – part of the ectoderm starts to form a groove  neural tube
o 4 weeks – ectoderm starts to close into a tube, three distinct bumps (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain – cerebral vesicles)
o 5 weeks – the forebrain and hindbrain vesicles split and form into several brain regions
 Important regions – telencephalon, diencephalon, mid-brain, brainstem
 Telencephalon  cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon and midbrain  basal ganglia
o 10 weeks – most of the brain’s regions are visible without a microscope
o 20 weeks – the cerebral hemispheres are clearly visible but they are smooth
o 24 – the cortical surface develops the folds and fissures that are essential for supporting the complex processing of the human brain

43
Q

how much does the brain weigh at birth

A

350-400g

44
Q

neurons

A

brain cells

45
Q

dendrites

A

branching out from the neuron’s cell body, receptors that receive chemical signals from other neurons
 Many are covered in dendritic spines which house receptors

46
Q

axon

A

a tube-like projection (1m – less than a 1 cm) that release neurotransmitter
 Axon terminals – small bulbs at the tips that contain chemical neurotransmitters

47
Q

synapses

A

small gaps between the axon terminals of two neurons

48
Q

action potential

A

electrical signal fired by a neuron  trigger the ends of the terminals to release neurotransmitters into the synapse

49
Q

myelin

A

a fatty substance that acts somewhat like the rubber insulation that directs electrical conduction along a wire

50
Q

myelination

A

when the axons are enclosed in a myelin sheath which speeds the movement of the action potential along the axon

51
Q

role of glial cells

A

support the neurons (100 times more than neurons)

52
Q

four stages of neuron development

A

proliferation, migration, consolidation, myelination

53
Q

neurogenesis

A

production of new neurons

54
Q

where do new nerve cells develop

A

in the centre of the brain

55
Q

radial glial cells role

A

lay down the path for neurons to migrate

56
Q

synaptogenesis

A

process of forming new synapses – vast number of connections between neurons (each of the 100 billion neurons is associated with 10 000 synapses)

57
Q

two types of loss of neurons

A

apoptosis and synaptic pruning

58
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death – cells die in highly specific patterns that help shape their resulting neural circuits – first observed 24 weeks after conception

59
Q

synaptic prunning

A

the neurons stay alive but some synapses are selectively eliminated

60
Q

do pruning and apoptosis serve different functions

A
  • Not clear whether these form serve different functions
    o Apoptosis – larger-scale changes in neural circuits
    o Pruning – localized and more sensitive to environmental factors
61
Q

compensation plasticity

A

the capacity for an area of the brain that is deprived of its normal inputs and processing routines to become devoted to other functions instead

62
Q

where is compensation plasticity especially present

A

brain’s association areas

63
Q

experience-dependent plasticity

A

the ability of the brain be malleable and physically change as a result of experience

64
Q

frontal lobe changes in puberty

A

pruning of synaptic connections in adolescence – 40% drop of the total number of synapses

65
Q

explanation for increased risk taking in adolescence

A

interaction between the frontal lobes and the limbic system and the striatum (rewards)

66
Q

heritability

A

extent to which variations in a particular trait within a particular population are due to genetic differences rather than environmental differences

67
Q

what would be the heritability If everything was due to the environment

A

0

68
Q

behavioural genomics

A

emphasis on the role of understanding a species’ genome and its effects at the molecular level

69
Q

changes in the approach to human differences

A

o Early – compare the behaviours they saw
o 60s – slight shift, knew that the differences in DNA were responsible for all variances in genotype but didn’t understand the process
o Next few decades – how genes direct the production of proteins
o Last 10 years – an extraordinary surge of technology – gene expression profiles

70
Q

one gene many traits

A

pleiotropic

71
Q

one trait many genes

A

polygenic

72
Q
A

childhood: developmental (3 decks)

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