week eight - learning and memory

Question 1

what is learning

Answer 1

a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience

Question 2

what are the characteristics of learning

Answer 2

• ongoing process
• covers a lot of ground
• can be direct or observed
• can be intentional or not

Question 3

what is incidental learning

Answer 3

causal, unintentional acquisition of knowledge

Question 4

what are the four types of learning

Answer 4

• basic
• cognitive
• attitudinal
• behavioural

Question 5

what is behavioural learning

Answer 5

stimulus-response connections:
- classical conditioning
- instrumental conditioning

Question 6

what is classical conditioning

Answer 6

a stimulus that elicits a response paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own

Question 7

what are the components of conditioning

Answer 7

• unconditioned stimulus
• conditioned stimulus
• conditioned response

Question 8

when is classical conditioning effective

Answer 8

• CS (conditioned stimulus) is preferred to US (unconditioned stimulus)
• repetition is required

Question 9

what is the halo effect

Answer 9

stimulus generalisation: tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke, conditioned response

Question 10

what are the principles of market applications of classical conditioning

Answer 10

• repetition, however exposure is not guaranteed
• conditioned product associations
• stimulus generalisation

Question 11

what is instrumental conditioning also known as

Answer 11

operant conditioning

Question 12

what is intrumental conditioning

Answer 12

the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes

Question 13

how does instrumental conditioning occur

Answer 13

• positive reinforcement
• negative reinforcement
  ^increase behaviour
• punishment
  ^decreases behaviour

Question 14

what is the instrumental conditioning reinforcement schedule

Answer 14

1) fixed interval reinforcement
- after some time passes, the first correct response brings a reward
2) variable interval reinforcement
- the time that passes before you get reinforced varies based on some average
3) fixed ratio reinforcement
- reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses, this motivates you to continue to perform the same behaviour
4) variable ratio reinforcement
- you get reinforced after a certain number of responses

Question 15

what are the marketing applications of instrumental conditioning principles

Answer 15

the marketer rewards or punishes the consumer:
- ‘thank you’ email
- discounts
- awards
- loyalty programmes

Question 16

what do cognitive theories focus on

Answer 16

they focus on consumers as problem solvers and stress the importance of internal mental processes:
- observational learning
- cognitive learning

Question 17

what is observational learning

Answer 17

we learn about products by observing others’ behaviours, items include:
- observer
- model
- vicarious experience
- modeled behaviour

Question 18

what are the observational learning conditions

Answer 18

• attention
• retention
• production processes
• motivation
• observational learning

Question 19

what are the marketing applications of cognitive learning principles

Answer 19

they can show what happens to desirable models who use or do not use their products, the marketer must meet four conditions:
1) the consumer must want to emulate
2) they must remember what the model says or does
3) they must convert the information into action
4) the consumer must be motivated to perform these actions

Question 20

what is cognitive learning

Answer 20

learning is the accumulation of information and also building knowledge

Question 21

is learning conscious

Answer 21

there is evidence to support the existence of nonconscious procedural knowledge

Question 22

what does the strength and speed of learning depend on

Answer 22

• characteristics of the stimulus
• reinforcement intensity
• behaviour-reinforcement interval
• number of repetitions
• continued memory
• degree of use of information

Question 23

what is memory

Answer 23

a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so it will be available when we need it

Question 24

what is the process approach of memory

Answer 24

1) external inputs
2) encoding
3) storage
4) retrieval

Question 25

what are the types of meaning of encoding

Answer 25

• sensory (colour or shape of packaging)
• semantic (symbolic associations)
• episodic (events that are personally relevant)
• narrative (story)

Question 26

what are the three memory systems

Answer 26

1) sensory memory
- temporary story of sensory information
- high capacity
- less than one second or few seconds of seeing/hearing
2) short-term memory
- brief storage of information
- limited capacity
- less than 20 seconds
3) long-term memory
- relatively permanent storage of information
- unlimited capacity
- long or permanent

Question 27

what is internal memory

Answer 27

peoples memory

Question 28

what is external memory

Answer 28

product details and other marketing stimuli which allow the identifications and evaluations of brands and alternative brands

Question 29

what is sensory memory

Answer 29

collecting information from the senses

Question 30

what is semantic memory

Answer 30

collecting information about the definitions of things

Question 31

what is episodic memory

Answer 31

information about particular events that we have experienced

Question 32

what is the evoked set

Answer 32

when we ask the consumer to list perfumes, this consumer recalls only those brands that show up in the appropriate category. This group constitutes the evoked set

Question 33

how may a marketing message activate a memory of a brand

Answer 33

indirectly: the process of spreading activation allows us to shift back and forth among levels of meaning

Question 34

what are the factors of influence of retrieval

Answer 34

• individual cognitive and physiological factors (age)
• situational factors (e.g. descriptive brand names)
• the way a marketer presents the message
• nature of the ad itself

Question 35

how can marketers use retrieval to sell their products

Answer 35

they could utilise nostalgia to evoke fond memories of the past

Question 36

what factors can hinder memory loss

Answer 36

• time (decay)
• interferance: retroactive (newly acquired information causes trouble in remembering old information) or proactive (prior learning can interfere with new learning
• repression (mechanism of defense)
• memory disorders

Question 37

what is recognition vs recall

Answer 37

• recognition: researchers show ads to subject one at a time and ask if they have seen them before
• recall: free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information first

Question 38

problems with memory measures

Answer 38

• people tend to be biased: a contaminated result due to the instrument or the respondent, rather than the object that is being measured
• people want to be ‘good’ so they tend to give the answer they think they are supposed to give

Question 39

what are memory lapses

Answer 39

people are prone to forget information or retain inaccurate memories
- omitting: leaving facts out
- averaging: normalising memories by not reporting extreme cases
- telescoping: inaccurate recall of time

Question 40

is recall necessary for advertising top have an effect

Answer 40

some critics argue that these measures do not adequately tap the impact of feeling ads whose objective is to arouse strong emotions rather than to convert accurate product benefits
- it is not clear whether recall translates into preference