week eight - learning and memory Flashcards
what is learning
a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience
what are the characteristics of learning
- ongoing process
- covers a lot of ground
- can be direct or observed
- can be intentional or not
what is incidental learning
causal, unintentional acquisition of knowledge
what are the four types of learning
- basic
- cognitive
- attitudinal
- behavioural
what is behavioural learning
stimulus-response connections:
- classical conditioning
- instrumental conditioning
what is classical conditioning
a stimulus that elicits a response paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own
what are the components of conditioning
- unconditioned stimulus
- conditioned stimulus
- conditioned response
when is classical conditioning effective
- CS (conditioned stimulus) is preferred to US (unconditioned stimulus)
- repetition is required
what is the halo effect
stimulus generalisation: tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke, conditioned response
what are the principles of market applications of classical conditioning
- repetition, however exposure is not guaranteed
- conditioned product associations
- stimulus generalisation
what is instrumental conditioning also known as
operant conditioning
what is intrumental conditioning
the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes
how does instrumental conditioning occur
- positive reinforcement
- negative reinforcement
^increase behaviour - punishment
^decreases behaviour
what is the instrumental conditioning reinforcement schedule
1) fixed interval reinforcement
- after some time passes, the first correct response brings a reward
2) variable interval reinforcement
- the time that passes before you get reinforced varies based on some average
3) fixed ratio reinforcement
- reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses, this motivates you to continue to perform the same behaviour
4) variable ratio reinforcement
- you get reinforced after a certain number of responses
what are the marketing applications of instrumental conditioning principles
the marketer rewards or punishes the consumer:
- ‘thank you’ email
- discounts
- awards
- loyalty programmes
what do cognitive theories focus on
they focus on consumers as problem solvers and stress the importance of internal mental processes:
- observational learning
- cognitive learning
what is observational learning
we learn about products by observing others’ behaviours, items include:
- observer
- model
- vicarious experience
- modeled behaviour
what are the observational learning conditions
- attention
- retention
- production processes
- motivation
- observational learning
what are the marketing applications of cognitive learning principles
they can show what happens to desirable models who use or do not use their products, the marketer must meet four conditions:
1) the consumer must want to emulate
2) they must remember what the model says or does
3) they must convert the information into action
4) the consumer must be motivated to perform these actions
what is cognitive learning
learning is the accumulation of information and also building knowledge
is learning conscious
there is evidence to support the existence of nonconscious procedural knowledge
what does the strength and speed of learning depend on
- characteristics of the stimulus
- reinforcement intensity
- behaviour-reinforcement interval
- number of repetitions
- continued memory
- degree of use of information
what is memory
a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so it will be available when we need it
what is the process approach of memory
1) external inputs
2) encoding
3) storage
4) retrieval
what are the types of meaning of encoding
- sensory (colour or shape of packaging)
- semantic (symbolic associations)
- episodic (events that are personally relevant)
- narrative (story)
what are the three memory systems
1) sensory memory
- temporary story of sensory information
- high capacity
- less than one second or few seconds of seeing/hearing
2) short-term memory
- brief storage of information
- limited capacity
- less than 20 seconds
3) long-term memory
- relatively permanent storage of information
- unlimited capacity
- long or permanent
what is internal memory
peoples memory
what is external memory
product details and other marketing stimuli which allow the identifications and evaluations of brands and alternative brands
what is sensory memory
collecting information from the senses
what is semantic memory
collecting information about the definitions of things
what is episodic memory
information about particular events that we have experienced
what is the evoked set
when we ask the consumer to list perfumes, this consumer recalls only those brands that show up in the appropriate category. This group constitutes the evoked set
how may a marketing message activate a memory of a brand
indirectly: the process of spreading activation allows us to shift back and forth among levels of meaning
what are the factors of influence of retrieval
- individual cognitive and physiological factors (age)
- situational factors (e.g. descriptive brand names)
- the way a marketer presents the message
- nature of the ad itself
how can marketers use retrieval to sell their products
they could utilise nostalgia to evoke fond memories of the past
what factors can hinder memory loss
- time (decay)
- interferance: retroactive (newly acquired information causes trouble in remembering old information) or proactive (prior learning can interfere with new learning
- repression (mechanism of defense)
- memory disorders
what is recognition vs recall
- recognition: researchers show ads to subject one at a time and ask if they have seen them before
- recall: free recall tests ask consumers to independently think of what they have seen without being prompted for this information first
problems with memory measures
- people tend to be biased: a contaminated result due to the instrument or the respondent, rather than the object that is being measured
- people want to be ‘good’ so they tend to give the answer they think they are supposed to give
what are memory lapses
people are prone to forget information or retain inaccurate memories
- omitting: leaving facts out
- averaging: normalising memories by not reporting extreme cases
- telescoping: inaccurate recall of time
is recall necessary for advertising top have an effect
some critics argue that these measures do not adequately tap the impact of feeling ads whose objective is to arouse strong emotions rather than to convert accurate product benefits
- it is not clear whether recall translates into preference
