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BIOL 122 - Anatomy and Tissue Structure > Week 9 > Flashcards

Week 9 Flashcards

1
Q

What are special sensory, sensory input to the CNS examples ?

A

Sight, taste, hearing, smell

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2
Q

What are the major components of the outer ear?

A

Pinna, auditory canal

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3
Q

What are the major components of the middle ear?

A

Malleus, incus, stapes (bones)
Tympanic membrane,
Oval window,
Round window

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4
Q

What are the auditory ossicles within the ear?

A

Malleus (connects to eardrum)
Incus (connects malleus to stapes)
Stapes

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5
Q

What is the Latin name for the vestibular canal?

A

Scala vestibuli

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6
Q

What is the Latin name for the cochlear duct?

A

Scala media

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7
Q

What is the Latin name for the Tympanic canal?

A

Scala tympani

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8
Q

What are the major components of the inner ear?

A

Eustachian tube,
Cochlea,
Auditory nerve to brain,
Semicircular canals

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9
Q

What do semicircular canals contain?

A

Semicircular ducts: Anterior, posterior and lateral

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10
Q

What does the bony labyrinth of the inner ear contain?

A

Perilymph

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11
Q

What does the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear contain?

A

Endolymph

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12
Q

What is in the round window of the middle/inner ear?

A

Secondary tympanic membrane

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13
Q

What is perilymph?

A

Fluid in vestibular and tympanic canals

(Part of the inner ear)

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14
Q

What is endolymph?

A

Fluid in cochlear duct (more K+ than perilymph)

(Part of the inner ear)

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15
Q

Where does the organ of Corti rest?

A

On the Basilar membrane

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16
Q

What does a cross-section through one turn of the cochlea contain?

A

Cochlear duct,
Bone,
Auditory Nerve,
Organ of Corti,
Tympanic canal,
Vestibular canal

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17
Q

What does the organ of Corti consist of?

A

3 rows of outer hair cells,
1 row of inner hair cells,
40-80 stereo cilia on apical surface of each hair cell which project into tectorial membrane and are impacted by the basilar membrane movement

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18
Q

What does fluid movement in the cochlear duct cause?

A

Part of the basilar membrane to vibrate which causes stimulation of hair cells that activate sensory neurones - message to the brain

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19
Q

40-80 stereocilia at the tip of each hair cell in the ear project into what membrane?

A

The tectorial membrane

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20
Q

Briefly outline the steps of conversion of mechanical stimulation to electrical signals in the ear?

A

Basilar membrane vibration,
Stereocilia detect movement,
Depolarisation of hair cell,
Neurotransmitter released,
Activation of sensory neurones,
Message conveyed to brain via cochlear branch of vestibulo-cochlear nerve

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21
Q

How does transmission of sound waves from scala vestibuli to scala tympani occur?

A

By way of helicotrema

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22
Q

What can be surgically inserted into the ear to aid hearing when nerves within the ear works but the cochlea does not?

A

A cochlea inplant

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23
Q

Where is the macula?

A

One each in utricle and saccule section of semicircular canals that connect to the cochlea

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24
Q

What is the macula composed of?

A

Otoliths (Calcium carbonate),

Otolithic membrane,

Hair bundle,

Hair cell,

Supporting cell,

Vestibular branches of vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve

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25
Q

What does the location of utricle and saccule in the inner ear contain?

A

Maculae

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26
Q

What does macula process?

A

Information on head position, acceleration and deceleration (aiding with physiology of balance within our body)

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27
Q

Where is physiology of balance maintained?

A

The semicircular ducts of the internal ear

(Utricle, saccule and cochlea regions)

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28
Q

Detection of head position, acceleration and deceleration?

A

Stereocilia movement,

Transduction channel:
Open = depolarisation
Closed = repolarisation

Signal sent via vestibular branch of vestibulocochlear nerve.

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29
Q

What does the semicircular ducts of the ear detect?

A

Rotational acceleration or deceleration

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30
Q

What does the location of ampullae of semicircular ducts contain?

A

Cristae

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31
Q

Where are nerve impulses sent to ensure balance is kept?

A

Motor areas

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32
Q

What detects changes with the bodies position?

A

The vestibular apparatus

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33
Q

What does the vestibular apparatus include?

A

Semicircular ducts,
Utricle,
Cochlea,
Saccule

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34
Q

This type of cell junction joins the lateral surfaces of epithelial cells and contains cadherin (a transmembrane glycoprotein) and has intracellular plaques attached to keratin

A

Desmosome

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35
Q

This type of cell junction enables the passage of ions and small molecules from one cell to the next

A

Gap junctions

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36
Q

This type of gap junction attaches calls to the basal lamina

A

Hemidesmosome

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37
Q

What kind of cartilage is found in the external ear or pinna

A

Elastic cartolage

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38
Q

In the renin - angiotensin-aldosterone system, a decrease in blood pressure or blood volume results in reabsorption of salt and water in (?) and the (?)

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

Distal convoluted tubule

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39
Q

What happens to the tubular fluid within the descending limb of the loop of Henle within the nephron?

A

It becomes more concentrated

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40
Q

Name a type of cell found in bone and give 2 characteristics that you would expect to observe when viewed down the microscope

A

Any of the below

Osteoblast; mononuclear/single nucleus, cuboidal in shape, large cytoplasm, large number of organelles in cytoplasm, seen associated with osteoid.

Osteoclast; multinuclear, have a clear zone or ruffled border, large cytoplasm, seen in a resorption lacunae, seen on mineralised bone surface.

Osteocyte; mononuclear/single nucleus, sits in a lacunae, has processes extending into the canaliculi, small cytoplasm, small compared to other cells.

Lining cell; mononuclear/single nucleus, flattened appearance, only nucleus usually visible, seen on endosteal surface, seen on periosteal surface, closely associated with adipocytes

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41
Q

What type of collagen is predominantly found in bone?

A

Type 1

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42
Q

What is the name of the mineral component found in bone?

A

hydroxyapatite

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43
Q

At the ………………… end of capillaries high ………………… pressure is able to overcome the …………………. pressure that results from high protein levels in the blood. This gives a net positive filtration pressure, and so fluid moves from the blood into the surrounding tissue.

A

Atrial

Hydrostatic

Osmotic

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44
Q

………………………… are the largest leukocyte

A

Monocytes

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45
Q

List the three tubes that form the hepatocyte portal triad.

A

Branches of the hepatic portal vein

Branches of the hepatic artery

Bile duct

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46
Q

Name the process by which Hepatocytes are able to synthesise glucose from fats, lactic acid or amino acids during starvation.

A

Gluconeogenesis

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47
Q

The liver receives oxygenated blood through the …………………………… and blood containing nutrients, from the gastrointestinal tract, through the ……………………………..

A

hepatic artery

hepatic portal vein

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48
Q

There are 3 types of cell secretion these are:

A

Merocrine
Apocrine
Holocrine

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49
Q

Fluid movement in the cochlear duct causes part of the …………… membrane to vibrate which causes stimulation of ……….. cells which activates …………… neurons which send a message to brain via the ……………… nerve

A

basilar
hair
sensory
auditory

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50
Q

The …………………………………………………… is the segment of myofibril running between two successive Z lines.

A

Sarcomere

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51
Q

The mesoderm in the embryo gives rise to …………………… and …………………… tissue

A

Muscle and connective

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52
Q

In the eye, the conversion of …….. ……………..retinal to …………………… retinal causes it to detach from ……………………………

A

Cis
Trans
Opsin

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53
Q

Blood is classified as ……… tissue?

A

Connective

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54
Q

Intervertebral discs are composed of a type of connective tissue called …………………………

A

Fibrocartilage

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55
Q

Joints are coated with …………… cartilage which forms a smooth friction-less surface

A

Articular

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56
Q

Skeletal muscle is under the control of the ………………………… nervous system

A

Somatic

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57
Q

Within the Organ of Corti within the cochlea in the inner ear, the stereocilia on the top of the hair cells touch the …………………………………………………………….

A

Tectorial membrane

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58
Q

Name the three type of neuronal cell, classified according to number of processes from the cell body.

A

Multipolar
Bipolar
Unipolar

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59
Q

An action potential arrives at sarcolemma and travels down the ……………… causing release of Calcium ions from the………………………..

A

T-tubules

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

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60
Q

The calcium ions then bind to ……………… so causing a conformational change in ………………… thus uncovering myosin binding sites on the …………….

A

Troponin

Tropomyosin

Actin/thin filaments

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61
Q

In the power stroke, stored energy in the myosin ………………is released and the myosin head moves. This power stroke causes the ……………. to …………………

A

Hinge region

Sarcomere

Shorten

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62
Q

Name two non-collagenous proteins, present in the bone matrix.
……………………………………………. and …………………………………………..

A

Any two from:

osteocalcin, osteonectin, osteopontin

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63
Q

What is the main non-conducting cell type in the nervous system

A

Neuroglia

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64
Q

The only muscle type that doesn’t have striations.

A

Smooth

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65
Q

What is the tympanic membrane better known as?

A

The ear drum

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66
Q

What are the canals in the cochlea filled with?

A

Fluid

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67
Q

What does the Organ of Corti contain ……….. of the ear hair cells with hairs projecting into the ………

A

Mechanoreceptors

Cochlear Duct

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68
Q

What results in the depolarisation of hair cells in the Organ of Corti?

A

Sound waves makes the basilar membrane vibrate which results in bending of the hairs and therefore, depolarisation of the hair cells

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69
Q

What occurs before sound can reach the hair cells?

A

Sound is amplified and transformed by accessory structures

70
Q

Step one: hearing

A
  1. Moving air causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. Bones of the middle ear transmit these vibrations
71
Q

Step two: hearing

A
  1. When the stapes vibrates against the oval window it creates pressure waves in the fluid inside the cochlea
72
Q

Step three: hearing

A
  1. Fluid pressure waves reach the vestibular canal and push down on the cochlear duct and basilar membrane; its attached hair cells vibrate up and down.
73
Q

Step four: hearing?

A
  1. Hairs projecting from the hair cells are deflected by fixed tectorial membrane. With each vibration, hairs bend first in one direction and then the other causing ion channels to open or close.

One way causes depolarisation and increases NT release and frequency of action potentials directed to the brain along the auditory nerve

The other way hyperpolarizes hair cells, reducing NT release and the frequency of auditory nerve sensations

74
Q

What prevents pressure waves from reverberating within the ear and causing prolonged sensation?

A

After propagating through the vestibular canal, pressure waves pass around the apex of the cochlea and dissipate as they strike the round window.

This dampening of sound resents the apparatus for the next vibrations to arrive

75
Q

What chambers in the ear allow us to perceive position with respect to gravity or linear movement?

A

Utricle and saccule

76
Q

What happens in the ear, when you tilt your head?

A

Otoliths shift position, contacting a different set of hairs protruding into the gel. The hair cell receptors transform this deflection into a change in the output of sensory neurones, signalling the brain that your head is at an angle

77
Q

What are otoliths responsible for other than signalling to the brain the position of your head?

A

Ability to perceive acceleration such as when a stationary car you’re sitting in pulls forward

78
Q

What detects the turning of your head?

A

three fluid-filled semicircular canals connected to the utricle detect turning of the head and other rotational acceleration.

79
Q

What lines the inside of the eye lid?

A

Non-keratinized stratified epithelium​
* Stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells​
* Stratified cuboidal-columnar epithelium​

Mucus membrane covering the white part of the eyeball (the sclera)​

80
Q

What does the fibrous tunic of the eye consist of?

A

Cornea, Sclera

81
Q

What is the cornea?

A

transparent​

helps focus light​

needs oxygen from ​

atmosphere​

​

82
Q

What is the sclera?

A

collagen fibres +​ fibroblasts​

rigid​

protection​

83
Q

What does the vascular tunic in the eye consist of?

A

Choroid (highly vascular = nutrients and O2​)
* Located between sclera and retina​

Ciliary body (makes aqueous humour)​

Iris (regulates light entry)

84
Q

What happens to the iris in bright light?

A

Pupil constricts as circular muscles of iris contract (parasympathetic)

85
Q

What happens to the iris in dim light?

A

Pupil dilates as radial muscles of iris contract (sympathetic)

86
Q

What are the two cavities within the eye?

A

Anterior and Vitreous

87
Q

What is the anterior cavity of the eye?

A

anterior and posterior​chamber in front of lens

Consists of Aqueous humor ​
* made in ciliary processes​
* nourishment for cornea and lens​
* Pressurised ​
* Replaced every 90 mins​

88
Q

What is the vitreous chamber of the eye?

A

Between lens and retina

Contains Vitreous body/humor​
* jelly –like, clear fills vitreous chamber.​

​

89
Q

What are the major part of the anterior chamber?

A

Suspensory ligaments

Ciliary body (Ciliary muscle, ciliary process) - produces aqueous humor ​

90
Q

Features of the lens in the eye?

A

Contains crystallins (protein)​

Cells arranged like layers of an onion​

Transparent​

No blood vessels​

Light refracted – image focussed on fovea​

91
Q

Briefly, how does the shape of the lens alter?

A

Shape alters via suspensory ligaments (zonular fibres), attached to ciliary process. Round for focusing on close objects and becomes flatter for focusing on distant objects​

92
Q

What is accommodation in the eye?

A

How the lens alters its shape in response to light.

93
Q

Accommodation of the lens for objects close versus at a distance

A

Distance: Ciliary muscle relaxes, suspensory ligaments taut, pulls the lens flatter

Close: Ciliary muscle contacts, suspensory ligaments’ tension released, lens more curved because it is elastic, greater convergence of light

94
Q

What is near-sightedness of the eye?

A

Myopia,

Light doesn’t reach the retina

95
Q

What is far-sightedess?

A

Hyperopia

Light reaches past the retina

96
Q

What is astigmatism in the eye?

A

Multiple images projects onto the retina from light

97
Q

Where is the most number of cones and best place of vision within the eye?

A

The macula
(and fovea)

98
Q

What is the optic disk in the eye?

A

The blind spot, the area where nerves connect to the back of the eye to transmit visual messages to the brain

Its the neural layer of the retina

99
Q

What animal doesn’t have a blind spot?

A

An octopus!

100
Q

What do ganglion cells do in the eye?

A

Transmit signals from bipolar cells to the brain

101
Q

What do horizontal and amacrine cells do in the brain?

A

Help integrate visual information before it is sent to the brain

102
Q

What is retinal convergence?

A

Rods 6 to 600:1 with a single bipolar cell

(Multiple rods/cone interacting with one bipolar cell)

103
Q

What are rod and cones?

A

Photoreceptor cells.

Visual pigments contained in discs/folds in outer segment of photoreceptor

104
Q

Features of the rods?

A

Rods = black/white vision​ (broader range of wavelength)

525nm ​

No rods in the fovea​

More rods in periphery of retina​

​Rhodopsin

105
Q

Features of cones?

A

Cones = colour vision ​(shorter range and peaks at blue, green, red)

Three different kinds of opsin​
* blue 455nm​
* green 530 nm ​
* red 625nm

106
Q

What is rhodopsin?

A

A photopigment found within the rods of the eye

107
Q

Light converts ….. retinal to ….. retinal.

When this happens?

A

cis-
trans-

When this happens retinal cannot bind to opsin, so it detaches therefore causing bleaching of the photopigment rhodopsin

108
Q

What does the enzyme retinal isomerase do?

A

Converts trans to cis-retinal in the dark
(regeneration)

109
Q

What happens in light. Bleaching and regeneration of rhodopsin photopigment?

A

In light, conversion to ​trans-retinal causes ​message to be relayed​to brain.

110
Q

When light enters the eye, it converts cis-retinal to trans-retinal. Which does what?

A

Trans-retinal activates rhodopsin, which activates transducin, which ​activates phosphodiesterase which hydrolyses cGMP to GMP. This ​causes the Na channels to close and leads to rod hyperpolarisation. ​

111
Q

What is convergence

A

Multiple neurons join to a single bipolar neuron in the eye

112
Q

What is the pigmented epithelium in the eye?

A

Absorbs light that hasn’t been absorbed by rods or cones

113
Q

What area (how thick) is the retina?

A

Ranges from the Optic nerve to the pigmented epithelium tissues

114
Q

What are the key functions of skin (integument system)?

A

Protection,

Regulating (temp, water balance, waste excretion),

Sensing (touch, pain, pressure, pain, heat, cold, light),

Producing (vitamin D, Nitric oxide)

115
Q

Role of the hypodermis within the skin?

A

Attaches skin to the bone

116
Q

What is the most common type of cell within the epidermis of skin?

A

Keratinocyte

117
Q

What are the two sweat glands and their function within the skin

A

Apocrine swear gland = Oder

Eccrine swear gland = Sweat

118
Q

What is the area of the skin contains dead cells and provides a waterproof coating

A

Stratum corneum

119
Q

What is the differences between thick and thin skin?

A

Thin: less stratum spinosum & corneum, no stratum lucidum

thick: increased sensory receptors, no hair follicles, no arrector pili muscles, no sebaceous glands

120
Q

What type of epidermis tissue is the skin?

A

Stratified squamous epithelium

121
Q

What is Keratinisation?

A

In the skin New epidermal keratinocytes produces and push up old ones, old ones die and shed, new ones replace the dead ones.

122
Q

Epidermal keratinocytes are produced where?

A

Stratum basale (basal layer) and migrate upwards.

Uppermost layers are dead, dry, scale like cells. ​
Upper layers of keratinocytes secrete lamellar granules, forming an impermeable, lipid-containing membrane that serves as a water barrier​
Epidermis turn-over in 4 weeks​

123
Q

What are the different cell types of the epidermis? What % of skin do they make up?

A

Keratinocytes (90%)

Melanocytes (8%)

Langerhans Cell - recognise and process microbial invaders

Merkel cells

124
Q

What is the tole of melanocytes within the skin?

A

Transfer melanosomes to surrounding keratinocytes through their dendrites

125
Q

What is the ratio between melanocytes and basal cells?

A

1:4 to 1:20

126
Q

What is the dermis of the skin made of?

A

Collagen (limits flexibility)
Elastic (provides flexibility)

Its a connective tissue

127
Q

Where is the dermis located in the integument system?

A

Between epidermis and hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

128
Q

What cell types does the dermis of the skin include?

A

Fibroblasts (main)​

Mast cells​

Phagocytes ​

Blood vessels​

Adipocytes

129
Q

What is the papillary dermis of the integument system?

A

Uppermost layer of dermis​

~20% dermis​

Areolar connective tissue​

Fine collagen and elastic fibres​

130
Q

What does the papillary dermis consist of?

A

Capillary loops​

Nerve endings (Meissner corpuscles; sensitivity to light touch)​

Free nerve endings​

131
Q

What is the reticular dermis in the skin?

A

~85% dermis​

Irregular dense connective tissue​

Thicker collagen/elastin fibres​

Most of skin’s strength and flexibility​

132
Q

What does the reticular dermis consist of?

A

Epidermal appendages (hair, sweat and sebaceous glands)​

Nerve ending (Pacinian corpuscles; detects vibration and pressures)​

133
Q

What are accessory skin structures?

A

Hair​

Sebaceous (oil) glands​

Sweat glands ​

Nails​

134
Q

What is the hair shaft within the skin made out of?

A

keratinocytes + keratin​

Cuticle: Outer protective layer​

Cortex: main bulk and pigment​

Medulla: soft core

135
Q

What is hair made up of?

A

Hair shaft,

Hair bulge (stem cell population)

Dermal papilla (specialised mesenchymal cells)

Near dermal papilla (Melanocytes, Blood vessels)

136
Q

What is sebaceous glands?

A

Oil glands:

Secrete oily sebum​
Moisturise and protect skin and hairs​
Antibacterial​
Too much sebum/inflammation -> acne​

137
Q

What are features of the apocrine sweat gland?

A

Not apocrine secretion – merocrine secretion instead​

Body odour​

Secrete ‘thick’ sweat into hair follicle ducts​

138
Q

What are features of the eccrine sweat gland?

A

Sweat contains water, sodium and chloride ions, urea, uric acid, ammonia, amino acids, glucose, lactic acid. 600ml per day!​

Secreted onto body surface ​

Regulates body temperature

139
Q

Structure of the sebaceous (oil) gland?

A

Simple branched acinar gland

140
Q

Structure of the sweat glands?

A

Simple coiled tubular gland

141
Q

Nails grow from where?

A

The tail root - an epidermal fold not visible from the surface

142
Q

What does nails consist of?

A

Nail consists of dead, tightly compressed cells packed with keratin

143
Q

This cell gives rise to platelets…

A

Megakaryocyte

144
Q

This blood cell is important in the allergic response and, when stained with Wrights stain has many blue-staining granules in its cytoplasm, containing histamine

145
Q

This blood cell has a nucleus which consists of several loves it is a phagocyte and approximately 60-70% of white blood cells are this kind

A

Neutrophil

146
Q

Are osteoclasts large, multinucleate cells which are responsible for bone resorption

147
Q

How many thoracic vertebrae are there?

148
Q

The inner surface of a bone is known as the….

149
Q

True or false

Demineralised bone is brittle

A

False

Demineralise bone is very flexible and consists largely of collagen I

150
Q

True or false

Osteocollagen is the mineral component of bone

A

False

The mineral component of bone is hydroxyl-apatite

151
Q

Red blood cells circulate in your blood for approximately what amount of time

152
Q

Can all lymphocytes be activated to produce antibodies

153
Q

Does whole blood contain approximately 45% plasma, by volume

A

No. It contains approximately 55% plasma, by volume

154
Q

True or false

Platelets have a diameter of approx 2-3 nm

155
Q

True or false the gall bladder has a muscular wall which is able to contract and eject bile into the cystic duct

156
Q

Are sinusoids within the liver lobes permeable

A

Yes, they are highly permeable

157
Q

Do hepatocytes receive oxygen from oxygenated blood in the hepatic artery?

158
Q

True or false

Kupffer cells reside with the sinusoids of a liver lobule and are responsible for phagocytosis of old red and white blood cells, bacteria and other foreign matter

159
Q

Insulin enables hepatocytes to convert glucose to what

160
Q

Hepatocytes are able to synthesise glucose from what

A

Fats, lactic acid or amino acids during starvation

161
Q

The liver is able to make fat by what

A

Converting excess glucose to glycerol and fatty acids which are then converted to fat by the process of lipogenesis

162
Q

The liver converts some fat to ketone bodies which can be used as a source of…

163
Q

Which of the following are true?

Bile pigments and bile salts are made by the hepatocytes
Bile salts aid absorption of proteins
Bilirubin is a major bile pigment and is breakdown product of haem
Bile salts emulsify proteins

A

True
False
True
False

164
Q

What % of glucose is hard to manufacture ATP

165
Q

Most of the fatty acids and triglycerides made in the liver become packaged into what

A

VLDLs and transported to adipose tissue for storage

166
Q

The liver makes a plasma protein called …….. which has an essential role in blood clotting

A

Fibrinogen

167
Q

What is the fibrous tunic

A

Non-keratinised stratified epithelium
* stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells
* stratified cuboidal-columnar epithelium

Mucus membrane covering the white part of the eye (the sclera)

Lines the inside of eyelids

168
Q

How does shape alter in the lens

A

Via suspensory ligaments (zonular fibres) attached to ciliary process.

Round for focusing on close objects and becomes flatter for focusing on distant objects

169
Q

What is the papillary dermis?

A

Uppermost layer of dermis
~20% dermis
Areoles connective tissue
Fine collagen and elastic fibres

170
Q

Dermal papillae contains

A

Capillary loops
Nerve endings (meissner corpuscles; sensitivity to light touch)
Free nerve endings

BIOL 122 - Anatomy and Tissue Structure (4 decks)

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