Week 9 Flashcards
1
Q
What are special sensory, sensory input to the CNS examples ?
A
Sight, taste, hearing, smell
2
Q
What are the major components of the outer ear?
A
Pinna, auditory canal
3
Q
What are the major components of the middle ear?
A
Malleus, incus, stapes (bones)
Tympanic membrane,
Oval window,
Round window
4
Q
What are the auditory ossicles within the ear?
A
Malleus (connects to eardrum)
Incus (connects malleus to stapes)
Stapes
5
Q
What is the Latin name for the vestibular canal?
A
Scala vestibuli
6
Q
What is the Latin name for the cochlear duct?
A
Scala media
7
Q
What is the Latin name for the Tympanic canal?
A
Scala tympani
8
Q
What are the major components of the inner ear?
A
Eustachian tube,
Cochlea,
Auditory nerve to brain,
Semicircular canals
9
Q
What do semicircular canals contain?
A
Semicircular ducts: Anterior, posterior and lateral
10
Q
What does the bony labyrinth of the inner ear contain?
A
Perilymph
11
Q
What does the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear contain?
A
Endolymph
12
Q
What is in the round window of the middle/inner ear?
A
Secondary tympanic membrane
13
Q
What is perilymph?
A
Fluid in vestibular and tympanic canals
(Part of the inner ear)
14
Q
What is endolymph?
A
Fluid in cochlear duct (more K+ than perilymph)
(Part of the inner ear)
15
Q
Where does the organ of Corti rest?
A
On the Basilar membrane
16
Q
What does a cross-section through one turn of the cochlea contain?
A
Cochlear duct,
Bone,
Auditory Nerve,
Organ of Corti,
Tympanic canal,
Vestibular canal
17
Q
What does the organ of Corti consist of?
A
3 rows of outer hair cells,
1 row of inner hair cells,
40-80 stereo cilia on apical surface of each hair cell which project into tectorial membrane and are impacted by the basilar membrane movement
18
Q
What does fluid movement in the cochlear duct cause?
A
Part of the basilar membrane to vibrate which causes stimulation of hair cells that activate sensory neurones - message to the brain
19
Q
40-80 stereocilia at the tip of each hair cell in the ear project into what membrane?
A
The tectorial membrane
20
Q
Briefly outline the steps of conversion of mechanical stimulation to electrical signals in the ear?
A
Basilar membrane vibration,
Stereocilia detect movement,
Depolarisation of hair cell,
Neurotransmitter released,
Activation of sensory neurones,
Message conveyed to brain via cochlear branch of vestibulo-cochlear nerve
21
Q
How does transmission of sound waves from scala vestibuli to scala tympani occur?
A
By way of helicotrema
22
Q
What can be surgically inserted into the ear to aid hearing when nerves within the ear works but the cochlea does not?
A
A cochlea inplant
23
Q
Where is the macula?
A
One each in utricle and saccule section of semicircular canals that connect to the cochlea
24
Q
What is the macula composed of?
A
Otoliths (Calcium carbonate),
Otolithic membrane,
Hair bundle,
Hair cell,
Supporting cell,
Vestibular branches of vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve
25
What does the location of utricle and saccule in the inner ear contain?
Maculae
26
What does macula process?
Information on head position, acceleration and deceleration (aiding with physiology of balance within our body)
27
Where is physiology of balance maintained?
The semicircular ducts of the internal ear
(Utricle, saccule and cochlea regions)
28
Detection of head position, acceleration and deceleration?
Stereocilia movement,
Transduction channel:
Open = depolarisation
Closed = repolarisation
Signal sent via vestibular branch of vestibulocochlear nerve.
29
What does the semicircular ducts of the ear detect?
Rotational acceleration or deceleration
30
What does the location of ampullae of semicircular ducts contain?
Cristae
31
Where are nerve impulses sent to ensure balance is kept?
Motor areas
32
What detects changes with the bodies position?
The vestibular apparatus
33
What does the vestibular apparatus include?
Semicircular ducts,
Utricle,
Cochlea,
Saccule
34
This type of cell junction joins the lateral surfaces of epithelial cells and contains cadherin (a transmembrane glycoprotein) and has intracellular plaques attached to keratin
Desmosome
35
This type of cell junction enables the passage of ions and small molecules from one cell to the next
Gap junctions
36
This type of gap junction attaches calls to the basal lamina
Hemidesmosome
37
What kind of cartilage is found in the external ear or pinna
Elastic cartolage
38
In the renin - angiotensin-aldosterone system, a decrease in blood pressure or blood volume results in reabsorption of salt and water in (?) and the (?)
Proximal convoluted tubule
Distal convoluted tubule
39
What happens to the tubular fluid within the descending limb of the loop of Henle within the nephron?
It becomes more concentrated
40
Name a type of cell found in bone and give 2 characteristics that you would expect to observe when viewed down the microscope
Any of the below
Osteoblast; mononuclear/single nucleus, cuboidal in shape, large cytoplasm, large number of organelles in cytoplasm, seen associated with osteoid.
Osteoclast; multinuclear, have a clear zone or ruffled border, large cytoplasm, seen in a resorption lacunae, seen on mineralised bone surface.
Osteocyte; mononuclear/single nucleus, sits in a lacunae, has processes extending into the canaliculi, small cytoplasm, small compared to other cells.
Lining cell; mononuclear/single nucleus, flattened appearance, only nucleus usually visible, seen on endosteal surface, seen on periosteal surface, closely associated with adipocytes
41
What type of collagen is predominantly found in bone?
Type 1
42
What is the name of the mineral component found in bone?
hydroxyapatite
43
At the ………………… end of capillaries high ………………… pressure is able to overcome the ...................... pressure that results from high protein levels in the blood. This gives a net positive filtration pressure, and so fluid moves from the blood into the surrounding tissue.
Atrial
Hydrostatic
Osmotic
44
.............................. are the largest leukocyte
Monocytes
45
List the three tubes that form the hepatocyte portal triad.
Branches of the hepatic portal vein
Branches of the hepatic artery
Bile duct
46
Name the process by which Hepatocytes are able to synthesise glucose from fats, lactic acid or amino acids during starvation.
Gluconeogenesis
47
The liver receives oxygenated blood through the …………………………… and blood containing nutrients, from the gastrointestinal tract, through the ……………………………..
hepatic artery
hepatic portal vein
48
There are 3 types of cell secretion these are:
Merocrine
Apocrine
Holocrine
49
Fluid movement in the cochlear duct causes part of the …………… membrane to vibrate which causes stimulation of ……….. cells which activates …………… neurons which send a message to brain via the ……………… nerve
basilar
hair
sensory
auditory
50
The ............................................................ is the segment of myofibril running between two successive Z lines.
Sarcomere
51
The mesoderm in the embryo gives rise to …………………… and …………………… tissue
Muscle and connective
52
In the eye, the conversion of ........ .................retinal to ........................ retinal causes it to detach from .................................
Cis
Trans
Opsin
53
Blood is classified as ......... tissue?
Connective
54
Intervertebral discs are composed of a type of connective tissue called ………………………...
Fibrocartilage
55
Joints are coated with …………… cartilage which forms a smooth friction-less surface
Articular
56
Skeletal muscle is under the control of the ………………………... nervous system
Somatic
57
Within the Organ of Corti within the cochlea in the inner ear, the stereocilia on the top of the hair cells touch the ......................................................................
Tectorial membrane
58
Name the three type of neuronal cell, classified according to number of processes from the cell body.
Multipolar
Bipolar
Unipolar
59
An action potential arrives at sarcolemma and travels down the ……………… causing release of Calcium ions from the………………………..
T-tubules
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
60
The calcium ions then bind to ……………… so causing a conformational change in ………………… thus uncovering myosin binding sites on the …………....
Troponin
Tropomyosin
Actin/thin filaments
61
In the power stroke, stored energy in the myosin ………………is released and the myosin head moves. This power stroke causes the ……………. to ………………...
Hinge region
Sarcomere
Shorten
62
Name two non-collagenous proteins, present in the bone matrix.
……………………………………………. and …………………………………………..
Any two from:
osteocalcin, osteonectin, osteopontin
63
What is the main non-conducting cell type in the nervous system
Neuroglia
64
The only muscle type that doesn't have striations.
Smooth
65
What is the tympanic membrane better known as?
The ear drum
66
What are the canals in the cochlea filled with?
Fluid
67
What does the Organ of Corti contain ........... of the ear hair cells with hairs projecting into the .........
Mechanoreceptors
Cochlear Duct
68
What results in the depolarisation of hair cells in the Organ of Corti?
Sound waves makes the basilar membrane vibrate which results in bending of the hairs and therefore, depolarisation of the hair cells
69
What occurs before sound can reach the hair cells?
Sound is amplified and transformed by accessory structures
70
Step one: hearing
1. Moving air causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. Bones of the middle ear transmit these vibrations
71
Step two: hearing
2. When the stapes vibrates against the oval window it creates pressure waves in the fluid inside the cochlea
72
Step three: hearing
3. Fluid pressure waves reach the vestibular canal and push down on the cochlear duct and basilar membrane; its attached hair cells vibrate up and down.
73
Step four: hearing?
4. Hairs projecting from the hair cells are deflected by fixed tectorial membrane. With each vibration, hairs bend first in one direction and then the other causing ion channels to open or close.
One way causes depolarisation and increases NT release and frequency of action potentials directed to the brain along the auditory nerve
The other way hyperpolarizes hair cells, reducing NT release and the frequency of auditory nerve sensations
74
What prevents pressure waves from reverberating within the ear and causing prolonged sensation?
After propagating through the vestibular canal, pressure waves pass around the apex of the cochlea and dissipate as they strike the round window.
This dampening of sound resents the apparatus for the next vibrations to arrive
75
What chambers in the ear allow us to perceive position with respect to gravity or linear movement?
Utricle and saccule
76
What happens in the ear, when you tilt your head?
Otoliths shift position, contacting a different set of hairs protruding into the gel. The hair cell receptors transform this deflection into a change in the output of sensory neurones, signalling the brain that your head is at an angle
77
What are otoliths responsible for other than signalling to the brain the position of your head?
Ability to perceive acceleration such as when a stationary car you're sitting in pulls forward
78
What detects the turning of your head?
three fluid-filled semicircular canals connected to the utricle detect turning of the head and other rotational acceleration.
79
What lines the inside of the eye lid?
Non-keratinized stratified epithelium
* Stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells
* Stratified cuboidal-columnar epithelium
Mucus membrane covering the white part of the eyeball (the sclera)
80
What does the fibrous tunic of the eye consist of?
Cornea, Sclera
81
What is the cornea?
transparent
helps focus light
needs oxygen from
atmosphere
82
What is the sclera?
collagen fibres + fibroblasts
rigid
protection
83
What does the vascular tunic in the eye consist of?
Choroid (highly vascular = nutrients and O2)
* Located between sclera and retina
Ciliary body (makes aqueous humour)
Iris (regulates light entry)
84
What happens to the iris in bright light?
Pupil constricts as circular muscles of iris contract (parasympathetic)
85
What happens to the iris in dim light?
Pupil dilates as radial muscles of iris contract (sympathetic)
86
What are the two cavities within the eye?
Anterior and Vitreous
87
What is the anterior cavity of the eye?
anterior and posteriorchamber in front of lens
Consists of Aqueous humor
* made in ciliary processes
* nourishment for cornea and lens
* Pressurised
* Replaced every 90 mins
88
What is the vitreous chamber of the eye?
Between lens and retina
Contains Vitreous body/humor
* jelly –like, clear fills vitreous chamber.
89
What are the major part of the anterior chamber?
Suspensory ligaments
Ciliary body (Ciliary muscle, ciliary process) - produces aqueous humor
90
Features of the lens in the eye?
Contains crystallins (protein)
Cells arranged like layers of an onion
Transparent
No blood vessels
Light refracted – image focussed on fovea
91
Briefly, how does the shape of the lens alter?
Shape alters via suspensory ligaments (zonular fibres), attached to ciliary process. Round for focusing on close objects and becomes flatter for focusing on distant objects
92
What is accommodation in the eye?
How the lens alters its shape in response to light.
93
Accommodation of the lens for objects close versus at a distance
Distance: Ciliary muscle relaxes, suspensory ligaments taut, pulls the lens flatter
Close: Ciliary muscle contacts, suspensory ligaments' tension released, lens more curved because it is elastic, greater convergence of light
94
What is near-sightedness of the eye?
Myopia,
Light doesn't reach the retina
95
What is far-sightedess?
Hyperopia
Light reaches past the retina
96
What is astigmatism in the eye?
Multiple images projects onto the retina from light
97
Where is the most number of cones and best place of vision within the eye?
The macula
(and fovea)
98
What is the optic disk in the eye?
The blind spot, the area where nerves connect to the back of the eye to transmit visual messages to the brain
Its the neural layer of the retina
99
What animal doesn't have a blind spot?
An octopus!
100
What do ganglion cells do in the eye?
Transmit signals from bipolar cells to the brain
101
What do horizontal and amacrine cells do in the brain?
Help integrate visual information before it is sent to the brain
102
What is retinal convergence?
Rods 6 to 600:1 with a single bipolar cell
(Multiple rods/cone interacting with one bipolar cell)
103
What are rod and cones?
Photoreceptor cells.
Visual pigments contained in discs/folds in outer segment of photoreceptor
104
Features of the rods?
Rods = black/white vision (broader range of wavelength)
525nm
No rods in the fovea
More rods in periphery of retina
Rhodopsin
105
Features of cones?
Cones = colour vision (shorter range and peaks at blue, green, red)
Three different kinds of opsin
* blue 455nm
* green 530 nm
* red 625nm
106
What is rhodopsin?
A photopigment found within the rods of the eye
107
Light converts ..... retinal to ..... retinal.
When this happens?
cis-
trans-
When this happens retinal cannot bind to opsin, so it detaches therefore causing bleaching of the photopigment rhodopsin
108
What does the enzyme retinal isomerase do?
Converts trans to cis-retinal in the dark
(regeneration)
109
What happens in light. Bleaching and regeneration of rhodopsin photopigment?
In light, conversion to trans-retinal causes message to be relayedto brain.
110
When light enters the eye, it converts cis-retinal to trans-retinal. Which does what?
Trans-retinal activates rhodopsin, which activates transducin, which activates phosphodiesterase which hydrolyses cGMP to GMP. This causes the Na channels to close and leads to rod hyperpolarisation.
111
What is convergence
Multiple neurons join to a single bipolar neuron in the eye
112
What is the pigmented epithelium in the eye?
Absorbs light that hasn't been absorbed by rods or cones
113
What area (how thick) is the retina?
Ranges from the Optic nerve to the pigmented epithelium tissues
114
What are the key functions of skin (integument system)?
Protection,
Regulating (temp, water balance, waste excretion),
Sensing (touch, pain, pressure, pain, heat, cold, light),
Producing (vitamin D, Nitric oxide)
115
Role of the hypodermis within the skin?
Attaches skin to the bone
116
What is the most common type of cell within the epidermis of skin?
Keratinocyte
117
What are the two sweat glands and their function within the skin
Apocrine swear gland = Oder
Eccrine swear gland = Sweat
118
What is the area of the skin contains dead cells and provides a waterproof coating
Stratum corneum
119
What is the differences between thick and thin skin?
Thin: less stratum spinosum & corneum, no stratum lucidum
thick: increased sensory receptors, no hair follicles, no arrector pili muscles, no sebaceous glands
120
What type of epidermis tissue is the skin?
Stratified squamous epithelium
121
What is Keratinisation?
In the skin New epidermal keratinocytes produces and push up old ones, old ones die and shed, new ones replace the dead ones.
122
Epidermal keratinocytes are produced where?
Stratum basale (basal layer) and migrate upwards.
Uppermost layers are dead, dry, scale like cells.
Upper layers of keratinocytes secrete lamellar granules, forming an impermeable, lipid-containing membrane that serves as a water barrier
Epidermis turn-over in 4 weeks
123
What are the different cell types of the epidermis? What % of skin do they make up?
Keratinocytes (90%)
Melanocytes (8%)
Langerhans Cell - recognise and process microbial invaders
Merkel cells
124
What is the tole of melanocytes within the skin?
Transfer melanosomes to surrounding keratinocytes through their dendrites
125
What is the ratio between melanocytes and basal cells?
1:4 to 1:20
126
What is the dermis of the skin made of?
Collagen (limits flexibility)
Elastic (provides flexibility)
Its a connective tissue
127
Where is the dermis located in the integument system?
Between epidermis and hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
128
What cell types does the dermis of the skin include?
Fibroblasts (main)
Mast cells
Phagocytes
Blood vessels
Adipocytes
129
What is the papillary dermis of the integument system?
Uppermost layer of dermis
~20% dermis
Areolar connective tissue
Fine collagen and elastic fibres
130
What does the papillary dermis consist of?
Capillary loops
Nerve endings (Meissner corpuscles; sensitivity to light touch)
Free nerve endings
131
What is the reticular dermis in the skin?
~85% dermis
Irregular dense connective tissue
Thicker collagen/elastin fibres
Most of skin’s strength and flexibility
132
What does the reticular dermis consist of?
Epidermal appendages (hair, sweat and sebaceous glands)
Nerve ending (Pacinian corpuscles; detects vibration and pressures)
133
What are accessory skin structures?
Hair
Sebaceous (oil) glands
Sweat glands
Nails
134
What is the hair shaft within the skin made out of?
keratinocytes + keratin
Cuticle: Outer protective layer
Cortex: main bulk and pigment
Medulla: soft core
135
What is hair made up of?
Hair shaft,
Hair bulge (stem cell population)
Dermal papilla (specialised mesenchymal cells)
Near dermal papilla (Melanocytes, Blood vessels)
136
What is sebaceous glands?
Oil glands:
Secrete oily sebum
Moisturise and protect skin and hairs
Antibacterial
Too much sebum/inflammation -> acne
137
What are features of the apocrine sweat gland?
Not apocrine secretion – merocrine secretion instead
Body odour
Secrete ‘thick’ sweat into hair follicle ducts
138
What are features of the eccrine sweat gland?
Sweat contains water, sodium and chloride ions, urea, uric acid, ammonia, amino acids, glucose, lactic acid. 600ml per day!
Secreted onto body surface
Regulates body temperature
139
Structure of the sebaceous (oil) gland?
Simple branched acinar gland
140
Structure of the sweat glands?
Simple coiled tubular gland
141
Nails grow from where?
The tail root - an epidermal fold not visible from the surface
142
What does nails consist of?
Nail consists of dead, tightly compressed cells packed with keratin
143
This cell gives rise to platelets…
Megakaryocyte
144
This blood cell is important in the allergic response and, when stained with Wrights stain has many blue-staining granules in its cytoplasm, containing histamine
Basophil
145
This blood cell has a nucleus which consists of several loves it is a phagocyte and approximately 60-70% of white blood cells are this kind
Neutrophil
146
Are osteoclasts large, multinucleate cells which are responsible for bone resorption
Yes
147
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12
148
The inner surface of a bone is known as the….
Endosteum
149
True or false
Demineralised bone is brittle
False
Demineralise bone is very flexible and consists largely of collagen I
150
True or false
Osteocollagen is the mineral component of bone
False
The mineral component of bone is hydroxyl-apatite
151
Red blood cells circulate in your blood for approximately what amount of time
120 days
152
Can all lymphocytes be activated to produce antibodies
No
153
Does whole blood contain approximately 45% plasma, by volume
No. It contains approximately 55% plasma, by volume
154
True or false
Platelets have a diameter of approx 2-3 nm
False
155
True or false the gall bladder has a muscular wall which is able to contract and eject bile into the cystic duct
True
156
Are sinusoids within the liver lobes permeable
Yes, they are highly permeable
157
Do hepatocytes receive oxygen from oxygenated blood in the hepatic artery?
Yes
158
True or false
Kupffer cells reside with the sinusoids of a liver lobule and are responsible for phagocytosis of old red and white blood cells, bacteria and other foreign matter
True
159
Insulin enables hepatocytes to convert glucose to what
Glycogeb
160
Hepatocytes are able to synthesise glucose from what
Fats, lactic acid or amino acids during starvation
161
The liver is able to make fat by what
Converting excess glucose to glycerol and fatty acids which are then converted to fat by the process of lipogenesis
162
The liver converts some fat to ketone bodies which can be used as a source of…
ATP
163
Which of the following are true?
Bile pigments and bile salts are made by the hepatocytes
Bile salts aid absorption of proteins
Bilirubin is a major bile pigment and is breakdown product of haem
Bile salts emulsify proteins
True
False
True
False
164
What % of glucose is hard to manufacture ATP
50%
165
Most of the fatty acids and triglycerides made in the liver become packaged into what
VLDLs and transported to adipose tissue for storage
166
The liver makes a plasma protein called …….. which has an essential role in blood clotting
Fibrinogen
167
What is the fibrous tunic
Non-keratinised stratified epithelium
* stratified squamous epithelium with goblet cells
* stratified cuboidal-columnar epithelium
Mucus membrane covering the white part of the eye (the sclera)
Lines the inside of eyelids
168
How does shape alter in the lens
Via suspensory ligaments (zonular fibres) attached to ciliary process.
Round for focusing on close objects and becomes flatter for focusing on distant objects
169
What is the papillary dermis?
Uppermost layer of dermis
~20% dermis
Areoles connective tissue
Fine collagen and elastic fibres
170
Dermal papillae contains
Capillary loops
Nerve endings (meissner corpuscles; sensitivity to light touch)
Free nerve endings
