Week 8: Reasoning + Decision Making

Question 1

Deductive reasoning

Answer 1

Deductive reasoning requires us to draw a logical conclusion based on the information supplied – the conclusion necessarily follows.

As such, deductive reasoning is a common type of thinking : we start
with several pieces of information that we must mentally manipulate in
order to draw a logical conclusion

Question 2

Conditional Reasoning

Answer 2

Conditional reasoning is a common type of deductive reasoning.

• Conditional reasoning tasks involve understanding the relationships between conditions (e.g., course prerequisites: you must complete PSY1BAM to enrol in PSY2COG
• Researchers studying conditional reasoning ask participants to determine whether a conclusion* is valid

Question 3

Syllogisms

Answer 3

Syllogisms are a common type of deductive reasoning task.
- A syllogism is a logical argument in which the conclusion is drawn from the premises:

e.g., All men are mortal (major premise)
Socrates is a man (minor premise)
Socrates is mortal (conclusion

Practical use:

Syllogisms can be a useful tool for analyzing arguments and evaluating their validity. However, it’s important to note that syllogisms can be flawed if one of the premises is untrue or if the conclusion does not follow logically from the premises.

When studying reasoning using syllogisms, participants are instructed to determine whether the conclusion* is: a) Valid; b) Invalid; c) Indeterminate. Given this you can use this as a therapy tool to determine the reasoning a client has

Question 4

Propositional Calculus

Answer 4

Propositional Calculus
- Propositional calculus is a system for categorizing the different types of reasoning we use.
Antecedent: first proposition or statement (the ‘if’ part of the sentence)
Consequent: second proposition (the ‘then’ part of the sentence)
Example:
If I fall in love, then I’ll be happy
Antecedent: If I fall in love
Consequent: Then I’ll be happy

Affirming the antecedent: I’m in love, therefore I’m happy (VALID)
Affirming the consequent: I’m happy, therefore I’m in love (INVALID)
Denying the antecedent: I’m not in love, therefore I’m not happy (INVALID)
Denying the consequent: I’m not happy, therefore I’m not in love (VALID)

Chat GBT definition:
Propositional calculus, also known as propositional logic or sentential logic, is a branch of mathematical logic that deals with logical relationships between propositions or statements. Propositional calculus is used to analyze the truth values of logical statements and to determine whether or not they are valid.
In propositional calculus, a proposition is a statement that can be either true or false. For example, “The sky is blue” is a proposition that can be either true or false.

Practical use:
- Propositional calculus can be used to analyze the validity of arguments by breaking them down into propositions and using logical operators to determine their truth values. This can be a powerful tool for evaluating the strength of logical arguments and identifying any potential flaws or inconsistencies.

• When reasoning conditionally, we can affirm or deny parts of the sentence.

Question 5

Abstract vs Concrete Reasoning

Answer 5

Abstract reasoning and concrete reasoning are two different approaches to thinking and problem-solving.

• Abstract reasoning is a type of thinking that deals with concepts and ideas that are not tied to specific physical objects or experiences. It involves thinking about things in the abstract, or in terms of general principles or theories. For example, abstract reasoning might involve thinking about mathematical equations or philosophical concepts that have no direct relationship to the physical world.
• Concrete reasoning, on the other hand, is a type of thinking that deals with specific objects or experiences that can be seen, touched, heard, or otherwise experienced. It involves thinking about things in a concrete, or specific, way. For example, concrete reasoning might involve thinking about how to fix a broken machine or how to cook a meal.

Question 6

Negative vs Positive Information

Answer 6

Reasoning errors are more common if the logic problem involves negatives – people experience greater difficulty processing sentences containing negative information (e.g., no, not)
My notes: This plays into infants having more difficulty in making sense out of negative words.

Chat GBT Definition:
- Negative and positive information are two different types of information that convey different types of meaning and have different effects on our thoughts and emotions.

• Negative information refers to information that describes something that is unwanted, harmful, or undesirable. Examples of negative information might include news about a natural disaster, a disease outbreak, or a crime. Negative information tends to evoke negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, or sadness.
• Positive information, on the other hand, refers to information that describes something that is wanted, helpful, or desirable. Examples of positive information might include news about a scientific breakthrough, a personal achievement, or a happy event. Positive information tends to evoke positive emotions such as joy, excitement, or satisfaction.
• Both types of information can be important for making informed decisions and understanding the world around us. Negative information can help us identify potential risks and avoid harmful situations, while positive information can inspire us and motivate us to pursue our goals.
• In summary, negative, and positive information are two different types of information that have different effects on our thoughts and emotions. Both types of information are important for understanding the world around us, but it is important to balance negative information with positive information in order to maintain a healthy perspective.
  Practical use:
  However, negative information can also be overwhelming and stressful, especially if we are constantly bombarded with negative news or experiences. It is important to balance negative information with positive information in order to maintain a healthy outlook and perspective.

Question 7

Belief Bias:

Answer 7

• Making judgements based on prior beliefs and general knowledge rather than the rules of logic.
• Belief bias is an example of top-down processing in which our expectations and prior knowledge help us organize experience and navigate the world.

Chat GBT Definition:
Belief bias refers to the tendency of people to evaluate the validity of an argument based on their pre-existing beliefs and opinions, rather than on the logical strength of the argument itself. This can lead people to accept arguments that support their beliefs and reject those that contradict their beliefs, even if the evidence supporting the argument is weak or flawed.
- Belief bias can be especially strong when people are presented with arguments that are complex or ambiguous, or when they are emotionally invested in a particular issue or belief. In these situations, people may be more likely to rely on their intuition and emotions rather than on logic and evidence.

• For example, imagine that someone strongly believes that the death penalty is an effective deterrent to crime. When presented with an argument against the death penalty that is logically sound, the person may still reject the argument based on their pre-existing belief in the efficacy of the death penalty. This is an example of belief bias, as the person is evaluating the validity of the argument based on their pre-existing belief rather than on the strength of the argument itself.
  Practical use:
• Belief bias can be a significant obstacle to critical thinking and rational decision-making, as it can lead people to accept faulty arguments and reject valid ones. To avoid belief bias, it is important to approach arguments and evidence with an open mind, evaluate the evidence objectively, and be willing to consider new ideas and perspectives. It is also helpful to be aware of one’s own biases and to actively work to overcome them.

Question 8

The difference between Belief Bias and confirmation bias

Answer 8

Chat GPT:
Belief bias and confirmation bias are two related but distinct cognitive biases.
- Belief bias refers to the tendency of people to evaluate the validity of an argument based on their pre-existing beliefs and opinions, rather than on the logical strength of the argument itself. This can lead people to accept arguments that support their beliefs and reject those that contradict their beliefs, even if the evidence supporting the argument is weak or flawed.
-
- Confirmation bias, on the other hand, refers to the tendency of people to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs and opinions, while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts their beliefs. This can lead people to selectively gather and interpret information in a way that reinforces their beliefs, even if the evidence as a whole does not support their position.

• The key difference between belief bias and confirmation bias is that belief bias is focused on evaluating the strength of arguments, while confirmation bias is focused on seeking out and interpreting information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
• To illustrate the difference, consider the example of someone who believes that climate change is not real. This person may be susceptible to both belief bias and confirmation bias. They may evaluate arguments against their position based on their pre-existing belief that climate change is not real (belief bias), and they may seek out information that supports their position while ignoring information that contradicts it (confirmation bias).
• Overall, belief bias and confirmation bias are related cognitive biases that can both interfere with rational decision-making and critical thinking. Understanding the differences between these biases can help people to recognize them and to work to overcome them.

Question 9

Confirmation bias

Answer 9

Confirmation bias:

Looking towards evidence that supports their narrative. Given this they are resistant to information that is inconsistent with there belief. This is why it is difficult to reason with a conspiracy theorist as they are very much on side with confirmation bias.

Chat GPT:
- Confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency of people to selectively gather and interpret information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs and opinions, while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts their beliefs. In other words, people tend to look for evidence that supports their existing beliefs and ignore evidence that challenges them.

• Confirmation bias can be seen in a variety of settings, from politics and religion to science and personal relationships. For example, someone who believes that vaccines are harmful may selectively seek out and interpret information that supports this belief, while ignoring or dismissing evidence that shows vaccines to be safe and effective.
• Confirmation bias can be problematic because it can lead people to maintain false beliefs and ignore important evidence. It can also lead to polarization and division, as people become more entrenched in their beliefs and less willing to consider alternative viewpoints.
• To overcome confirmation bias, it is important to approach information and evidence with an open mind, and to actively seek out evidence that challenges one’s beliefs. It is also helpful to seek out diverse perspectives and to engage in constructive dialogue with people who hold different views. By doing so, people can avoid the pitfalls of confirmation bias and make more informed, evidence-based decisions.