Week 8 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the major sources of long-term finance? How can they differ?

A

The major sources of long-term finance are equity, or debt from the external capital market, or retained profits from the internal capital market.

The differences between these come in the form of cost, tax, security and restrictive requirements, and maturity terms and cash flow requirements.

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2
Q

What is the main source of finance?

A

The main source of finance is from internally generated cash flows, this has increased over time.

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3
Q

When must cash flow requirements be met with debt or equity?

A

If a company’s cash flow requirements are higher than the internal cash flow (net income + depreciation - dividends), they must be met with long-term debt and equity.

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4
Q

What are some of the major differences between debt and equity as a source of financing?

A

Equity creates an ownership interest, debt holders do not have ownership costs. Dividends are not a cost of doing business and hence are not tax deductible, stockholders have no legal recourse if not paid. Common stockholders vote for the board of directors and other issues.
Creditors have legal recourse if interest or principal payments are missed, potentially leading to bankruptcy and financial distress.

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5
Q

What does having ordinary shares mean for an investor?

A

Ordinary shares give a residual claim to earnings and assets after other assets, as compensation, they expect a return greater than lending, equity had no maturity date, but can be brought back through a share repurchase. Shareholders have voting rights proportional to their holdings.

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6
Q

What are the pros of using equity financing?

A

Equity pros:
access to additional capital base, increased liquidity of capital, provides an alternative resource to cash, enhances corporate image, increases market exposure and operational and incentive independence, the obligation for dividends is discretionary, it is also a perpetual source of finance (doesn’t have to be paid off).

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7
Q

What are the cons of using equity financing?

A

Equity cons:
Increases information disclosure requirements, more stringent legal and corporate governance responsibilities, highest-cost source of finance for firms, transaction costs of issuing shares, issuing more shares to new shareholders can dilute existing shareholders’ ownership and control. Most importantly, the returns to shareholders can be subject to double taxation (business income and shareholder) unless there are franking credits.

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8
Q

What does using debt financing mean for a company?

A

Corporate long-term debt financing is a contractual claim on the firm, the company must make scheduled interest payments and/or principal repayment, defaulting on these payments can result in the sale of the assets securing the debt or actions to wind-up the company and recover debt owed, interest payments are tax deductible and most debt securities have a set maturity date.

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9
Q

What is the difference between registered and bearer form bonds?

A

Bonds can be registered in which case the firm keeps record of initial ownership and any changes in ownership, in the bearer form the holder of the security is the owner.

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10
Q

What forms of security are there for bonds?

A

Bond security can come in the form of collateral (financial securities or any asset pledged on a debt), mortgage securities (secured by real property), debentures (unsecured bonds), or notes (unsecured debt with an original maturity less than 10 years

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11
Q

What is the seniority of a bond?

A

The seniority of a bond is a ranking of bonds, more senior bond holders will get paid first in the event of liquidation.

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12
Q

What do the terms of a debt agreement include?

A

The terms of a debt agreement include: the amount of debt and the security provided over the debt, the interest rate and repayment arrangements, the existence of any call provisions, and any protective covenants attached to the debt (rules about what the company can do while holding the debt).

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13
Q

Has debt or equity financing grown more of late? Why?

A

Debt finance use has grown over time, as a result of increasing attractiveness to investors: low interest rate environment, availability of credit ratings for evaluating and pricing corporate debt, the psychological effect of equity market crashes, an alternative to government debt securities, and the attractive features of corporate bonds, and higher returns relative to government bonds.

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14
Q

What does a call provision of a bond give? How can they tell if this is a good idea? What will it mean for purchasers of these?

A

A call provision gives corporate bond issuers the option to repurchase all or part of the debt at or after certain specified dates at a specified call price, this should be done by using NPV analysis (comparing the cost of calling the debt against the interest savings from calling and/or re-issuing debt). As the call provision is valuable to the firm the callable bonds have higher coupon rates and promised yields.

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15
Q

What is the promised return of a bond equation?

A

The promised return is (the face value – the market value)/market value.

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16
Q

What does a put provision of a bond give? How can they tell when to do this and what is the cost?

A

A put provision gives debt-holders the option to sell the debt to the company when certain exercise conditions are met (at face value), this is useful to bond holders, meaning these bonds provide a lower coupon rate and promised yields. A bond holder should do this when interest rates go up (when bond value is lower than face value).

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17
Q

What does a convertibility provision do? Who is favored and when will it be used?

A

Convertibility provisions allow debt to be converted into equity securities of the issuing firm at a set conversion ratio by bond holders. These favor bond holders and as such are normally issued with a lower coupon rate. If the value of the ordinary shares is greater than the value of the bond they will convert to shares.

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18
Q

What does it mean when a bond has floating or reset coupon rates?

A

Floating or reset coupon rates adjust in line with movements in underlying market interest rates, they reduce the interest rate risk associated with debt securities.

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19
Q

What are hybrid - convertible notes? What will their relative interest rate be

A

Hybrid – convertible notes are a form of unsecured notes with an attached conversion feature, allowing holders to convert the note to ordinary shares of the issuing company at set dates up to and including maturity, this allows them to be issued at a lower interest rate than unsecured notes due to the value of the conversion option.

20
Q

What are prefered shares?

A

Preference shares have features of both debt and equity, they have a fixed dividend rate, paid prior to ordinary shareholders, are perpetual securities and may have conversion options but do not typically have voting rights.

21
Q

How do we value a debenture? What if it is a perpetuity?

A

To value a debenture/unsecured bond we find the asset value as the sum of discounted future cash flows. This is two parts, what is the price at the end of year 1 based on the different potential interest rates, and what is the expected price at this time, then factor in the coupon payment. If a bond is perpetual we of course value it as a perpetuity.

22
Q

How do we value a bond that includes a call provision?

A

When valuing a bond that includes a call provision we must look at the likelihood of the call occurring, the firm will call at any point where the value is greater than the cost of calling. More generally NPV = ((coupon rate on outstanding bond with call – coupon rate on new issue)/ new issue coupon rate) * face value – call premium. We can also use this to workout the fair coupon rate.

23
Q

What is a line of credit? What about revolving line of credit?

A

A line of credit is the maximum amount the bank is willing to lend, if this is guaranteed (legally obligated bank), this is known as a revolving line of credit.

24
Q

When will a syndicated loan occur and what is it?

A

A syndicated loan occurs because large banks frequently have a larger demand for loans than they can supply, (small regional banks have the opposite scenario), this leads to very large banks arranging a loan with a firm or country and then selling portions of this loan to a syndicate of other banks, this is known as a syndicated loan and they can be publicly traded.

25
Q

Where can equity financing come from?

A

Equity financing can come from angel investors, venture capital firms, institutional investors and corporate investors.

26
Q

What are angel investors and venture capital firms? What role do they typically play?

A

Angel investors are individual investors who buy equity in small private firms, these could be friends and family, or knowledgeable individuals/groups of individuals. Venture capital firms are financial intermediaries that are typically set up as limited partnerships, they play an active role in overseeing, advising, and monitoring companies they invest in, but generally do not want to own the investment forever.

27
Q

What forms do institutional investors come in?

A

Institutional investors come in the form of pension funds, insurance companies, endowments and foundations, they may invest directly, or indirectly by becoming limited partners in venture capital firms.

28
Q

What is a corporate investor?

A

Corporate investors are when established corporations purchase equity in younger, private companies, this may be for strategic objectives, or for investment returns.

29
Q

How can shares be issued?

A

Shares can be issued via public issue/cash offer, this is an issue to investors at large, it could be an initial public offering or a seasoned equity offering. A rights issue is a priority issue to existing shareholders in a fixed proportion to their current shareholding. A private placement is an issue of a large parcel of shares to specific investors (normally institutional investors).

30
Q

What is an IPO? Is this a quick process?

A

Initial public offerings are the first issue of shares by a newly listed company on the stock exchanges, it is typically where companies raise most of their equity. There can be a long period between prospectus issue and the receipt of funds by the firm.

31
Q

What is an underwriter in IPOs?

A

An underwriter is an investment banking firm that manages the offering and designs its structure, if there are multiple, then a syndicate is the other underwriters that help with marketing and selling the issue.

32
Q

What is the general process of an IPO?

A

The process of an IPO(book-building) includes hiring underwriters, then they will do presentations in multiple places, they will specify an intended (not obligated) price and submission of interests/ subscription, then there is a price announcement, then share rationing/distribution, and finally the firm receives the proceeds.

33
Q

How do advisers typically price an IPO?

A

Pricing an IPO issue is difficult as there is no prior or current traded price to be used as a guide or estimate. Advisers often use the price-earnings ratios of existing companies in the same industry, they must also consider a fixed price offer or whether it should be open pricing (book-building) strategies, it is also important to consider the timing of the issue and the state of the share market.

34
Q

Why are IPOs typically underpriced

A

Ensure that issues are fully subscribed, to attract knowledgeable investors, in the hopes of others following their lead, to counteract the “winner’s curse”, where informed investors crowd out uninformed, and to provide a benefit to investors so they will support future share issues.

35
Q

What is the agency problem in issuing IPOs that occurs with relation to the underwriter?

A

There is an agency problem in issuing IPOs, the underwriter’s commission is proportional to the aggregate value, an incentive to set price higher, however if the issue is unsuccessful they receive no commission and as such set a lower price to reduce undersubscription risk. There is also usually a standby commitment to buy the short-fall if the issue is not fully subscribed, an incentive for a lower price.

36
Q

What are some of the factors that influence IPO underpricing?

A

There are a number of factors shown to influence IPO underprice, such as the risk of the company (the higher the risk the higher underprice), the age and operating history of the firm (the lower the underpricing), the status of parties involved, size of IPO, industry membership, retained inside ownership, share market conditions.

37
Q

What are the advantages of hiring an underwriter? What makes this more common?

A

Underwriting transfers the risk of under-subscription to an IPO, it also allows an outside party in the whole issue process, as the underwriter normally has expertise in this. The likelihood of underwriting a public issue are:
more likely to have IPO with: large size of issue, the greater the risk associated with the issue or issuing firm, the lower the ownership percentage being retained, and in poor market conditions.

38
Q

What are the overall costs of a public issue? What do they come from?

A

The overall costs of a public issue are typically 5-10% of the amount raised, these costs are:

Underwriter commission, adviser’s fee, legal and accounting fees, stock exchange listing fees, indirect expenses, and underpricing.

39
Q

What occurs in a rights issue? Why might current shareholders prefer it?

A

In a rights issue there is a rights offering, this is an issue of ordinary shares to existing shareholders, this allows current shareholders to avoid the dilution effect, the rights specify the number of shares that can be purchased per share, the purchase price, the time frame. Shareholders can either exercise their rights or sell them (if the rights are tradable), and neither win nor lose either way.

40
Q

What is subscription price, ex-rights day, and cum-rights with regards to a rights issue?

A

In rights issues the subscription price is the price that must be paid to obtain new shares. The Ex-rights date is the date on which a share begins trading ex-rights. Meaning the right is not attached to shares from this date. Cum-rights means the rights are attached to the shares.

41
Q

What is the theoretical rights price in a rights issue?

A

The theoretical rights price is : number of shares held to obtain right * number of additional shares offered for right*((market price before issue – issue price of rights issue)/(number of shares to obtain right + number of shares offered for right)). The number of shares offered for a right is generally 1 if not given.

42
Q

What will occur to the share price on the ex-rights date?

A

On the ex-rights date the price should fall as the share no longer has this right, and there is a dilution of the share capital after the rights issue, the ex-rights price should fall by the value of the right attached to each share, so the ex-right share price is: PEX = price of Cum-rights share – value of rights/number of shares required for right. q

43
Q

How should the cum-rights share price compare to the price of the share before the rights issue?

A

The cum-rights share price should be the same as the price of the share before the rights issue.

44
Q

What is a private placement? What are some typical requirements? What do existing shareholders think?

A

A private placement is the issue of large parcels of shares to institutional investors or clients of a stockbroker, these are normally required to be issued at a discount to encourage investors to acquire a large parcel, there is no registration, prospectus or underwriting required. It is a low-cost and quick way for firms to raise relatively large amounts of capital. Existing shareholders do not like private placements as they dilute proportional holdings and they allow other shareholders to purchase shares at a discount.

45
Q

What are the three methods for issuing debt?

A

Debt is issued using public issue (cash offer), private issue (private placement) or family issue (similar to rights issue). A public issue is the same general procedure as a public issue of stocks, a private issue avoids costs of registration and is easier to renegotiate terms.

46
Q

Will a firm’s value always increase by the NPV of a project? How does the financing choice play a role?

A

Firms normally raise funds to finance new projects or investment activities,as firms invest in positive NPV projects the firm value should increase by the NPV of the projects financed by the funds raised. In reality however, share prices change by more or less than this NPV effect, with the price tending to increase in response to debt issues, and fall in response to equity issues. Hence, the net change in firm value is the project NPV plus the value effect of the financing choice.

47
Q

Why is there a value effect of financing choice?

A

The value effect of financing choice comes about largely because of: Asymmetric information, the firm has a better idea about its underlying value than market participants, and the signaling effect, equity issues suggest a firm’s shares are overvalued, debt issues instead send a positivesignal about future performance expectations.