Week 7- Methods of qualitative data collection Flashcards
What are the different methods of data collection?
- Observation/ ethnographic field notes
- Case studies
- Interviews and oral histories (semi-structured)
- Focus groups
- Diaries (written + video)
- Media data (newspapers, magazines, TV)
- Documents/ archives
- Internet data
- ‘Naturally occurring’ data
What is ethnography?
-> the immersion into a particular group or phenomena
- You examine a group or phenomena for an extended period of time
2 types of observer:
- Neutral observer -> takes notes of interesting phenomena that relates to research question
- Active -> asking question whilst observing
Issues:
- Gaining access - overt or covert? (ethics)
- if outsider, should have key ‘informants’ or gatekeepers who assure you access to community
- Can be structured or unstructured field notes
- Video record to capture data
Describe diaries + documentaries as a method of data collection
- Diaries often used in health psych
-> can be pre-existing prior to your research or ppts could have produced one over a period of time - Ppt set a task to complete (e.g. write about their experience of illness)
- Documents - letters + autobiographies
Describe internet-mediated research as a method of data collection
- Publicly available data from internet + is a growing area of research
- Data taken off public websites (e.g. various online support groups)
- Problems -> issues of ethics - best to seek consent
- Should always check BPS - ethics guidelines for internet-mediated research
Describe naturally occurring data as a method of data collection
- Some qualitative researchers argue that data should be ‘naturally occurring’ (e.g. mealtime conversations)
-> this means it has been produced without the intervention of a researcher - For instance discursive psychologists have suggested a move away from interview data (Potter & Hepburn, 2005)
Data appropriate for naturally occurring data:
- Media sources, online materials
- Diaries
Not appropriate:
- Written accounts
- Interviews/ focus groups
What are the types of interviews?
Interviews are the most widely used method of data collection in qualitative research
Structured: Like a questionnaire - set of questions repeated to every ppt
Unstructured: driven by ppt - talk about specific experience, phase of life (e.g. oral histories)
Semi-structured: interview schedule as a guide for interview - encourage ppts to expand on questions to capture unexpected data
Why are interviews the most widely used method of data collection in qualitative research?
- Compatible with several methods of data analysis
- Easier to arrange than other methods
- Not always easy to conduct (e.g. sensitive interviews)
- Requires careful preparation + planning
What are characteristics of an interview?
- Opportunity to hear ppt talk about particular aspect of their life or experience
- Questions function as triggers that encourage talk (but need prompts)
- Non-directive (although interview drives research question)
-> this means the questions should be in enough detail to encourage conversation to gain original data but to make space for ppts to talk freely about their experiences and to say stuff you did not expect - Steer interview to obtain kind of data that will answer research question
- Right balance between control + freedom for ppt to go ‘off track’ - generate novel insights
What are some issues to consider when conducting semi-structured interviews
- What questions to ask to get at your research question/ focus
- Who & how to recruit?
- Where to interview?
-> private, soundproof room without distractions - Online interviews
-> need to be able to monitor ppts - How to record interview
-> needs to be recorded to capture what was said - How to transcribe interview
What is an interview schedule for semi-structured interviews?
- Guides (not dictates) the interview
- Forces you to think explicitly about what you hope to cover
- Enables you to think about potential difficulties + sensitive areas
- Qualitative researchers tend to argue that rapport is important
- It is important to frame your questions in a way ppts will understand
- Aim is to hear their story so you don’t have to stick rigidly to your questions
How do you construct a semi-structured interview schedule?
- Think about broad range of themes want to cover
- Put questions from these themes in most logical order
- Think of appropriate questions related to each area - sequence questions
- Think of probes/ prompts to encourage ppt to talk freely
- If covering a sensitive issue, leave questions until later, after establishing rapport with ppt
Rapport: to establish an atmosphere of trust, openness + friendliness and should be developed at beginning of interview
- Sensitive questions should be placed in middle of interview, end should be lighter so ppt won’t leave upset or disturbed
What are the types of questions you can use in interviews?
Descriptive:
- We want the ppt to provide an account of something
e.g. if you could please describe to me what happened?
Structural:
- How does the ppt organise their knowledge - how do they make sense of the topic you are studying?
-> after explanations
e.g. Why do you think that happened
Contrast:
- Good idea to ask ppt to make comparisons between events + experiences
e.g. Could you please compare these two events/experiences
Evaluative:
- What are their feelings towards someone/something?
e.g. How did it make you feel?
Probing:
e.g. can you explain that more? Can you tell me what you meant? Could you give me more detail?
What are questions to avoid in an interview?
Closed questions
-> produce yes/no answers
e.g. Did you like what happened?
Two-in-one (double barrel) questions
-> confusing + ppts forget one part
e.g. What did you think about that and why?
Try not to ask value larden and leading questions (evaluative or emotional value)
e.g. Sexism is horrible, so what did you think about what he said to her?
Avoid jargon
-> using psychological terms ppts may not understand
e.g. What behavioural patterns did you notice?
Questions that don’t make sense
How should you conduct the interview?
- Read through interview schedule aloud to check it makes sense before undertaking an interview
- Become familiar with schedule but take it with you to use as a guide
- Relax the ppt beforehand, don’t rush process
- Check recording equipment is working
- Be prepared for your questions to be answered before you ask them
- Respond to what is said and monitor the effect on interviewee
- If interviewee becomes emotional, do not terminate interview -> give them time to correct themselves if they would like to carry on or if they would like to terminate or carry on at different time
Why is it important to keep records?
- Research diary is a useful tool
-> put comments on each interview ppt - could inform later interviews - Systematic labelling of data -> when coding, transcripts will be in smaller pieces, need to be labelled properly so can go back to data
- Reminder of event
- Start of analytic procedure
- Informs later interviews
- You still need demographic details of ppts (age, sex, occupation, ethnicity etc.)
What are focus groups?
- A group of people (ideally 4-8) recruited under some remit
e.g. young people discussing sexting - Useful for informal group discussions that are ‘focused’ on a particular topic or set of issues
- Based around a focus group schedule - your job is to facilitate group discussion between ppts
- Evidence suggests group context actually facilitates personal disclosures
- Good method for eliciting people’s own understandings and viewpoints, and for observing how these viewpoints are advanced, elaborated and negotiated in a social context
What is the difference between a focus group and an interview?
Focus groups are where researcher should facilitate group discussion among the ppts, not with you
-> still need to guiide them + produce a schedule but won’t be as detailed as in interviews
-> can use vignettes in focus groups to get ppts to discuss these
-> could also use media data to show ppt aspects you want them to discuss
-> both vignettes and media data act as prompts to explore particular issues and to encourage ppts to interact among themselves + discuss these topics
What are some issues with focus groups?
Ppts:
- How many in a group?
-> ideal number is 4-6, as if you have less, this could lead to problems with initiating communication + interaction between group members
-> if more ppts in group, some could become hidden and not have space for own input
- How many groups?
-> this is dependent on the employed analysis, some unethical approaches can have more ppts and more groups
- Recruitment?
-> need to make sure you have access to population
Schedule:
- Need an organised and engaging schedule
-> what questions will you ask, what tasks will you ask ppts to do and what data do you want?
Ethics:
- Confidentiality is tricker in focus group as ppts communicate and see each other, so will hear all the identifiable info about other ppts
Why are ethical considerations trickier in qualitative research?
- We consider similar issues as in quant research (informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, anonymity, security of data)
- But we are working closely with ppts’ words, audio and video so more care is needed
- We present data in reports so we need to use pseudonyms and change any identifying features (during transcription stage)
- Each mode of data collection has its own challenges
Describe the ethical considerations in qualitative research
- Can only recruit ppts after ethical approval
- All ppts have to give informed consent + sign consent form before participation
- Have to think of these right from the planning stage of study
- Will you be able to access the right people?
- Are ppts particularly vulnerable (e.g. children, NHS patients + consultants, ppts from criminal system)? -> additional ethics needed
- Do you have the skills to handle difficulties (e.g. if they become upset, if they disclose some abuse to you)
- Check if ppts want to stop, withdraw etc.
- Your job is to think about issues and develop appropriate protocols
