Week 7 Flashcards
What cognitive types of multilingualism are there?
- Simultaneous Multilingualism: Learning 2 or more languages at the same time from early childhood
– T2 tegelijk met T1
– Occurs naturally at home, often through play and interaction
– Both languages can reach a max. level of proficiency depending on SES and exposure.
– Leads to a balanced bilingual, meaning equal fluency in both languages
- Successive Multilingualism: Learning a second language after the first one is already acquired.
– T2 is learned after T1, often in school or work
– T1 is dominant at home, T2 is acquired through external influences like school or the workplace
– proficiency in T2 varies, depending on the input and context
– Results in a functional bilingual; 1 language is stronger than the other, often depending on domain-specific usage.
What is multilingualism?
Multilingualism: the ability to use multiple languages in communication.
Key aspects:
1. Cognitive aspect: it involves learning and processing multiple languages, influencing memory, problem-solving, and creativity
2. Social and Cultural aspect: Language is tied to identity, culture, and social interactions.
3. Practical aspect; Being multilingual offers advantages in global communication, travel, education, and career opportunities
> so multilingualism is more than just cognition, it involves also emotinal, social, and cultural significance.
What are the 3 dimensions of multilingualism that describe people’s association with a language?
- Expertise: How proficient someone is in the language
- Affiliation: the emotional or affective relationship with a language
- Inheritance: the language that is acquired by birth within a family or community.
How does the mother language impacts language learning, emotional well-being, and academic success for refugee and immigrant children?
- Good skills in mother language helps to learn another language; Skills developed in the first language transfer to the second language, enhancing cognitive and linguistic abilities
- When children are allowed to use their home language in school, they feel more emotionally connected to their learning environment. This boosts their confidence and sense of belonging, making it easier for them to engage in school activities. You can do this by asking what a new word in the new language means in their own language.
- While maintaining the home language is crucial, children aslo need sufficient exposure to the new language to become proficient in it. Schools should provide structured opportunities for students to engage with the target language in meaningful ways. At home, parents should prioritize developing a strong proficiency in any language, even if it is not the school’s target language.
> A well-developed first language creates a cognitive and linguistic base that facilitates the transfer of skills to a second language (e.g., grammar structures, vocabulary learning strategies).
Name the 3 transferhypothesis:
- Knowledge transfer
- Threshold hypothesis
- Automaticity hypothesis
Explain the knowledge transfer hypothesis
- Awareness of language structures (e.g. grammar rules) in L1 helps with L2 learning
- Higher order skills (such as reading strategies, critical thinking, and comprehension skills) developed in L1 can be applied to L2 reading and writing
- Strengthening L1 literacy and cognitive skills can enhance second language acquisition.
- Multilingual education programs should support home language development rather than forcing exclusive use of L2.
- Language transfer is not just about vocabulary but also understanding sentence structures, grammar, and reading strategies.
Explain the threshold hypothesis
The key idea is that a learner must reach a certain level (threshold) in L2 before higher-order cognitive and linguistic skills can effectively transfer from L1.
- Educators should ensure L2 learners have sufficient vocabulary and linguistic skills before expecting them to perform complex reading tasks in L2.
- Bilingual education programs should focus on building L2 proficiency alongside maintaining L1 literacy to facilitate knowledge transfer.
- Learners who struggle with L2 reading may not necessarily have poor reading skills but may lack the required L2 proficiency to apply their skills effectively.
Explain the automaticity hypothesis
The Automaticity Hypothesis builds on the Threshold Hypothesis and suggests that for successful reading and language processing in L2, certain language skills must become automatic (i.e., fast, effortless, and not requiring conscious thought).
- If L1 and L2 share similar writing structures (e.g., both use alphabets, like English and Spanish), L2 learning is facilitated. If L1 and L2 have different orthographies (e.g., English vs. Chinese), transfer may be more challenging.
- a learner must develop sufficient vocabulary and phonological awareness to read effortlessly in L2.
Past a certain threshold, word recognition becomes fast and automatic, reducing the cognitive load on working memory.
implications:
- L2 learners should practice word recognition and decoding until these skills become automatic, freeing up cognitive resources for comprehension.
- Language instruction should focus on building fluency in decoding and recognizing words in L2, particularly for languages with different orthographic systems.
- L1 literacy remains important because it provides a foundation for developing efficient reading and writing strategies in L2.
Explain the research of Van Gelderen about the automatic hypothesis of transfer from L1 > L2
This research investigated:
1. ‘do reading skills transfer from L1 (dutch) to L2 (english), if so, when does transfer occur?’
2. ‘Do multilinguals have an advantage in cognitive flexibility compared to monolinguals’
METHODS:
1. Reading Skills in L1 and L2:
- Evaluating comprehension and fluency in both Dutch and English.
2. Metacognitive Knowledge (Questionnaire):
- Testing awareness of reading strategies, understanding text structures.
3. Linguistic Knowledge:
- Measuring vocabulary and syntax skills in both languages.
4. Automaticity/Speed Tests:
- Assessing word recognition and sentence verification speed (e.g., “A cat has 5 legs: Yes/No”).
RESULTS:
- Low-order skills: Vocabulary, syntax, and word recognition are language-dependent, meaning these skills must be learned separately in L1 and L2; There was no evidence of direct transfer between Dutch and English in these areas.
- Higher-order Skills: Metacognitive reading strategies (e.g., identifying important information in a text) are language-independent and showed potential for transfer from L1 to L2.
CONCLUSION:
- No Evidence for the Automaticity Hypothesis; The study found no support for the idea that automatic word recognition in L1 helps in L2 reading.
- Evidence for Knowledge Transfer (Threshold Hypothesis); Some higher-order reading skills transferred, but only when students had sufficient proficiency (vocabulary) in L2.
- Multilinguals Did Not Have a Clear Advantage; Contrary to expectations, multilingual students scored lower overall than monolinguals, suggesting no inherent cognitive advantage.
- Importance of L1 Proficiency at Home; The results support previous findings that it is better to develop a strong L1 (even if different from the school’s language) rather than weakly acquiring the target language (L2).
IMPLICATIONS:
- Teaching should focus on building a strong L2 vocabulary and syntax base before expecting students to transfer L1 reading skills.
- Multilingualism does not automatically provide an academic advantage, but strategic language development in L1 can facilitate L2 acquisition.
- Parental and school policies should support home language maintenance, as well-developed L1 literacy helps in learning additional languages later.
How to diagnose multilingualism children with dyslexia?
Difficulties:
1. IQ-achievement discrepancy, due to:
- IQ tests are often conducted in a child’s second language (L2), which can lead to lower scores due to limited language proficiency rather than actual cognitive deficits (Ashby, Morrison & Butcher, 1970).
- There is often a gap in test performance between multilingual children and their native-speaking peers, but this gap decreases with time as their L2 improves.
- Academic language proficiency in L2 takes 5-7 years to fully develop (Cummins, 1984), meaning early testing can underestimate cognitive potential.
- implications on diagnosis: Since IQ scores may be artificially low, many multilingual children fail to meet the criteria for learning disabilities like dyslexia.
As a result, these children may be denied additional resources that could support their language learning and literacy development.
- Since dyslexia is often diagnosed using an IQ-achievement discrepancy model, multilingual children may be misdiagnosed as low-ability rather than having a specific learning disability.
- If educators only focus on dyslexia interventions (e.g., phonological skills training) without considering L2 proficiency, interventions may not work effectively;
Example: A multilingual child with limited vocabulary in L2 may struggle with phonics-based exercises designed for dyslexic students because the real issue is language proficiency, not dyslexia.
KEY TAKEAWAYS FOR DIAGNOSING DYSLEXIA IN MULTILINGUALS:
- Assess literacy in both L1 and L2 to separate language learning delays from dyslexia-related deficits.
- Avoid using IQ tests in L2 as a sole diagnostic tool—consider using non-verbal IQ tests or dynamic assessments.
- Distinguish between reading difficulties caused by language acquisition vs. phonological processing issues that indicate dyslexia.
- Ensure interventions support both dyslexia and L2 development, rather than assuming that all reading difficulties are due to dyslexia alone.
What is IQ-achievement discrepancy?
The gap between a student’s intellectual ability (IQ score) and their academic performance.
What are the 5 problem areas for immigrants, where cultural differences may cause challenges?
- Non-verbal communication
- Communication style
- Group vs. individual orientation
- Conflicting norms and values
- Structure in surroundings
Explain the problems in non-verbal communication
Different cultures interpret body language differently, such as; in the western culture it is respectfull to look someone in the eyes when you are talking to them, but in other cultures, this can be disrespectful.
> Misunderstandings in non-verbal cues can lead to misinterpretations of behavior in school settings.
Explain the problems in communication style:
- At Home: Communication is often implicit, based on hierarchy and respect (e.g., children listen to parents without questioning).
- At School: Communication is often explicit, requiring children to explain, argue, and justify their opinions.
- This difference can make it difficult for multilingual students to adjust to classroom discussions where argumentation and self-expression are expected.
Explain the problems in group vs. individual orientation:
- Individualistic cultures (e.g., Western countries) emphasize independence, personal achievement, and self-expression.
- Collectivistic cultures (e.g., Turkish, Moroccan, Surinamese communities) emphasize group harmony, social control, and respect for family/community expectations.
- This can affect classroom behavior, teamwork, and participation, where some students may prioritize group approval over individual success.
Explain the problems in Norms and Values
- Some cultures prioritize roles and hierarchy (e.g., respect for teachers, elders, and traditional family roles).
- Others emphasize independence and responsibility (e.g., students are encouraged to question teachers, take initiative, and be self-reliant).
- This can lead to conflict in expectations between home and school.
Explain the problems in structure in surroundings
- Home Life: Many students from non-Western backgrounds are raised in strictly structured environments, where they know their roles and expectations (e.g., respect for elders, clear family rules).
- School Environment: Western education often encourages self-structuring, questioning authority, and critical thinking.
- This can create challenges in adapting—students may feel unsure about expressing opinions or questioning teachers, leading to misunderstandings in class participation.
What should school do to address the 5 problem areas?
Social skills training:
- Instead of forcing students to change their cultural behaviors, they should be taught additional social codes so they can navigate different contexts while keeping their own cultural identity (integration, not assimilation).
School psychologists:
- reminds school psychologists to avoid assumptions about multilingual students.
- Educators and psychologists should consider whether language or cultural communication styles are affecting student behavior before diagnosing issues.
The slide on school psychologists suggests that professionals should learn about a student’s cultural background before making generalizations.
- Educators should not generalize, but instead, consider how a student’s cultural values shape their school behavior.
What is the acculturation theory?
This theory explores how individuals and groups adapt when exposed to a new cultural environment.
explain the difference between unidimensional models and bidimensional models
- Unidimensional models:
- Suggest that acculturation is a linear process where individuals move towards the dominant culture.
- The more they adopt the host culture, the less they maintain their original culture. - Bidimensional models:
- Recognizes that people can maintain aspects of their original culture while also adapting to a new one.
- Adaptation: Establishing relationships with the new culture.
- Cultural Maintenance: Retaining one’s native cultural identity.
Explain which identity aspects from the two-dimensional identity model of acculturation by Hutnik associates with which acculturation strategy from the theory of Berry
- Integration ~ Hyphenated identity
- Assimilation ~ Predominant Majority identity
- Separation ~ Embedded Minority Identity
- Marginalization ~ No clear cultural identity
Explain Berry’s acculturation model.
This model extends Berry’s Acculturation Model by focusing on identity formation in multicultural individuals. It describes how individuals categorize themselves based on two identity dimensions:
- Identification with the Ethnic Minority Group
- Identification with the Majority (Host) Culture
According to Hutnik (1991), acculturation involves both:
1. Cultural Change (Acculturation Process) – The extent to which an individual adopts the host culture.
2. Self-Categorization (Identity Formation) – How an individual defines their own cultural identity.
There are 4 acculturation strategies (4 ways to adapt to a new culture):
1. Integration:
- Both cultures are valued and maintained.
- The individual adopts aspects of the new culture while preserving their native culture.
- Most preferred and successful strategy for well-being and adaptation.
- Example: A child from a Turkish immigrant family in the Netherlands who speaks both Turkish at home and Dutch at school.
- Separation:
- Strong maintenance of original culture with minimal contact with the new culture.
- Relationships with the host society are not considered important.
- Example: A migrant group maintaining its language, traditions, and social circles without integrating into the mainstream society. - Assimilation:
- Complete adoption of the host culture while abandoning the original culture.
- Individuals try to blend into the new culture at the expense of their heritage.
- Example: An immigrant completely adopting Dutch customs, language, and values while no longer practicing their original cultural traditions. - Marginalization:
- Loss of the original culture and failure to adopt the new culture.
- Individuals feel disconnected from both societies.
- This strategy is rare and associated with negative psychological outcomes such as identity confusion, alienation, and social exclusion.
Explain the contextual model of acculturation:
Acculturation does not happen uniformly across all aspects of life. People may adopt different acculturation strategies in different contexts.
Berry’s model assumes a “trait” approach—that is, people follow a single acculturation strategy across all domains of life.
However, the Contextual Acculturation Model suggests that acculturation is influenced by competing pressures from the host society and the ethnic community.
- Public (school, work, government): - The norms of the dominant culture are the most influential. Migrants may adopt mainstream behaviors in these contexts (e.g., using Dutch at school/work).
- Private (home, family): - The ethnic culture remains strong and is easier to maintain. Individuals may behave differently at home than in public (e.g., speaking their native language, following traditional values).
Example:
- A Turkish student in the Netherlands may speak Dutch fluently at school but only speak Turkish at home.
- A Moroccan family may strictly follow Moroccan customs at home, but children adopt Dutch customs when interacting with peers.
> The most successful students alternate between separation (in the family context) and integration (in the school context)
Acculturation strategies are context-dependent, meaning individuals switch between different strategies depending on the environment.
Successful minority students often show “context-dependent acculturation.”
They maintain their ethnic culture in private settings (e.g., family, religious community) while successfully integrating in public settings (e.g., school, work).
Failure to adapt in public settings (e.g., school) may lead to academic difficulties, social exclusion, or behavioral problems.
How should acculturation be assessed contextually?
- Assessing Acculturation Across Contexts
- When measuring overall acculturation, assessments should include both public and private life behaviors.
- Public domain: School, work, media exposure → More influenced by the host culture.
- Private domain: Family, home, religious practices → More influenced by ethnic culture.
- Example: A Moroccan-Dutch student might behave differently at home vs. at school, so both areas should be assessed. - Assessing Acculturation in a Specific Context
- If the goal is to measure acculturation in a specific setting, assessments should focus on that particular domain.
- Example:
— If measuring school performance, focus on acculturation strategies in school (language use, social adaptation, educational attitudes).
— If looking at marital relationships, consider acculturation within family life, such as values about gender roles or parenting styles.
Why this matters:
- Acculturation is not a one-size-fits-all process—it varies across contexts and life domains.
- Failing to consider context can lead to inaccurate conclusions about an individual’s adaptation.
- A well-balanced assessment must capture both behavioral (what people do) and attitudinal (what people believe) aspects of acculturation.
What are the challenges in multicutural psychological and educational assessments?
Multicultural assessment considers individual differences in cognition, emotion, and motivation that influence acculturation. Psychological assessment should focus on individual differences in psychological acculturation, using standardized psychological and educational assessments.
- The Adjustment dimension (how well a person integrates) is considered more important than the culture maintenance dimension.
- This leads to two key questions in assessment:
— Does the individual belong to the target population for which the test was developed?
— Is the test valid for measuring the construct in this person? - Interpretation of results should consider these questions to ensure fair evaluation.
- The assumption that tests work equally well for all groups is incorrect, but it’s also incorrect to assume that no test is valid for minority groups.
What are the biases in multicutural psychological and educational assessments?
- Acculturation is a continuum: individuals range from no adjustment to complete adjustment to the dominant culture.
- Extreme cases are clear:
— No adjustment (e.g., language barriers) → Standard tests are not applicable.
— Full adjustment → Standard tests may be appropriate. - The problem lies in in-between cases, where adjustment varies significantly.
- Psychologists need to identify appropriate instruments based on where the individual falls on this adjustment spectrum.
What are the solutions in multicutural psychological and educational assessments?
- The best approach is to integrate multicultural considerations into standard assessment practices.
- This includes gathering information about the client’s/participant’s level of acculturation and their strategy for adapting.
- This helps psychologists make better-informed decisions about which assessment tools are appropriate.
Summarize the study of Stevens about acculturation and problem behavior in immigrants
INTRO:
- Immigrants experience significant social and cultural changes, including learning a new language and adjusting to new moral values
- Children and adolescents are particularly vulnerable to stress caused by migration.
- Adolescents face higher risks for psychological problems due to:
— Cultural conflicts between home and school environments.
— Feelings of alienation.
— Language difficulties and experiences of discrimination.
— Identity struggles during adolescence
- Various studies have shown mixed results when analyzing the relationship between acculturation and psychological adjustment.
- Stevens et al. (2003) compared Moroccan and Turkish youth in the Netherlands to native Dutch youth.
- Although Moroccans and Turks share a similar migration history and religion, there are differences in:
— Education levels (higher illiteracy rates among Moroccans).
— Cultural differences between Moroccan and Turkish societies. - The hypothesis was that Moroccans would experience greater difficulties in adjusting compared to Turks.
Describe the results of the study of Stevens
- Teacher reports showed that Moroccan students had more externalizing behavior problems (e.g., aggression, rule-breaking) than Dutch students.
- Teachers also reported more externalizing problems for Moroccan students than for Turkish students.
- However, self-reports from Moroccan adolescents indicated fewer emotional and behavioral problems compared to Dutch adolescents.
- Parental reports:
— Moroccan parents reported similar levels of problems as Dutch parents.
— Moroccan parents reported fewer problems compared to Turkish parents. - Gender differences:
— Boys showed more externalizing problems (e.g., aggression).
— Girls exhibited more internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depression).
— These gender differences were consistent with other research findings.
Describe the implications of the study of Stevens
- Multicultural assessment should be integrated into standard psychological practices.
- Psychological assessment should:
1. Go beyond group comparisons (e.g., “more or less acculturated”).
2. Consider individual cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors.
3. Recognize that problems vary depending on the social domain (e.g., school vs. home).
4. Use cross-validation between self-reports, teacher reports, and parental reports.
Describe the conclusions of the studie of Stevens
- The effects of migration vary significantly between different immigrant groups, even when they share a common migration history and religion.
- The expectation that Moroccan immigrants would have more problems than Turkish immigrants was only confirmed by teacher reports, not by self-reports or parental reports.
- Teachers reported twice as many behavioral problems for Moroccan children compared to Dutch children.
- This suggests that acculturation stress manifests differently depending on who is reporting the problems (teachers, parents, or students themselves).
