Week 1

Question 1

Explain the diathesis-stress model

Answer 1

It explains how mental disorders develop due to the interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability (diathesis) and stressful life events (stress).

Question 2

What is meant bij diathesis?

Answer 2

This refers to an individual’s inherent vulnerability to a mental disorder, which can be biological (genetic makeup, brain abnormalities, neurotransmitter imbalances), psychological (maladaptive thinking patterns, personality traits), or environmental (early childhood trauma, neglect).

Question 3

What is meant by predisposition?

Answer 3

Predisposition refers to a natural tendency or susceptibility to develop a particular condition, trait, or behavior. It can be influenced by genetic, biological, psychological, or environmental factors.

In the Diathesis-Stress Model, predisposition (or diathesis) means an underlying vulnerability to a mental or physical disorder. However, just having a predisposition does not guarantee that the disorder will develop—it usually requires an external trigger, such as stress or trauma.

Question 4

What is meant by stress in the diathesis-stress model?

Answer 4

Stressful experiences (environmental triggers) or life events (such as loss of a loved one, financial struggles, trauma, or chronic illness) act as triggers that may activate the underlying vulnerability

Question 5

Explain the Differential Susceptibility Model

Answer 5

It suggests some individuals are more sensitive than others to environmental influences—both positive and negative—due to their genetic and biological makeup.

Biological Sensitivity to Context

Some people have “plasticity genes” (e.g., variations in dopamine, serotonin, or cortisol regulation) that make them more affected by their surroundings.
- These individuals experience worse outcomes in negative environments (e.g., trauma leading to severe depression) - - but also better outcomes in positive environments (e.g., strong support leading to exceptional well-being).

Question 6

Explain the Orchid vs. Dandelion Metaphor

Answer 6

• Orchid Children: Highly sensitive individuals who thrive in nurturing environments but struggle in stressful ones.
• Dandelion Children: More resilient individuals who develop similarly regardless of environmental conditions.

Question 7

Explain the difference between the diathesis-stress model and the differential susceptibility model

Answer 7

• The Diathesis-Stress Model focuses on vulnerability to negative influences (i.e., stress leads to disorder in predisposed individuals).
• The Differential Susceptibility Model suggests that sensitivity applies to both negative and positive experiences, meaning sensitive individuals can flourish under positive conditions.

Question 8

Name 2 implications of the differential susceptibility model

Answer 8

1. Encourages personalized interventions (e.g., children with high sensitivity might need more tailored education or parenting).
2. Suggests mental health treatments should consider both risk and opportunity—those who struggle the most might also improve the most with the right support.

Question 9

Give 2 examples of the differential susceptibility model

Answer 9

1. A child with a sensitive temperament might develop anxiety in a stressful home but excel academically and socially in a nurturing and structured environment.
2. A person with genetic markers for depression might struggle with adversity but benefit more from therapy or social support than someone without those markers.

Question 10

Give 2 examples of the diathesis-stress model

Answer 10

1. Schizophrenia: A person with a genetic predisposition (family history of schizophrenia) might develop the disorder after experiencing significant life stress, such as childhood trauma or drug abuse.
2. Depression: A person with low serotonin levels (biological diathesis) may develop depression after losing their job or experiencing a breakup (stress).

Question 11

Give 2 implications of the diathesis-stress model

Answer 11

1. This model highlights the importance of both nature (genetics, biology) and nurture (environment, experiences) in mental health.
2. It supports preventive measures such as stress management, therapy, and lifestyle changes to reduce the likelihood of disorder development.

Question 12

What are risk factors and give some examples

Answer 12

Risk factors are characteristics, conditions, or influences that increase the likelihood of developing a disease, disorder, or negative outcome
- bio-organic: genotype, biochemical disturbances in brain, neurological defects, malnutrition
- intrapersonal: difficult temperament, low intelligence
- interpersonal: stressful experiences
- broader environment: poverty, abuse, exposure to violence, unemployment

Question 13

What are protective factors and give some examples

Answer 13

Protective factors are characteristics, conditions, or influences that reduce the likelihood of negative outcomes and help individuals cope with stress, adversity, or risk factors.
- good physical health
- genetic resilience
- positive self-esteem
- emotional regulation skills
- supportive family relations
- positive peer influence
- access to education

Question 14

For whom are special needs primary schools (speciaal basisonderwijs (SBO))?

Answer 14

Children with:
1. Learning problems
2. Light behavioral problems
3. Additional support

Question 15

For whom are special needs schools (speciaal onderwijs (SO))?

Answer 15

Children with more complex problems/ DSM diagnosis is required. Both primary and secondary schools.
1. Visually handicapped
2. Auditory and Communication handicaps; Also ASS with primary language problems
3. Physical, mental and multiple handicaps
4. serious behavioral problems (also due to ASS)

Question 16

What is Youth Health Care Psychology?

Answer 16

• diagnosis, assessment, psychological treatment, psychological training
• need knowledge of normal development, deviant development, interventions techniques and youth care system

Question 17

What is School Psychology?

Answer 17

• focus on functioning in schoolcontext
• focus on prevention or psychological training
• need knowledge of normal development, deviant development, interventions techniques and youth care system

Question 18

Name some typical problems in the baby phase of development

Answer 18

• Difficult to calm down
• difficulties sleeping, eating, day-and-night rhythm
• attachment issues

Question 19

Name some typical problems in the early childhood phase of development

Answer 19

• stubborn/negative
• aggressive
• shy

Question 20

Name some typical problems in the school age phase of development

Answer 20

• social problems
• learning problems

Question 21

Name some typical problems in the adolescence phase of development

Answer 21

• social problems
• identity
• turning against parents
• sexuality

Question 22

Name and explain the 4 D’s which you can use to decide when behavior is deviant

Answer 22

1. Deviance: Behavior that significantly deviates from societal or cultural norms.
2. Distress: The behavior causes significant personal distress, suffering, or discomfort.
3. Dysfunctional: Behavior that disrupts a person’s ability to function in important areas of life, such as work, relationships, or self-care.
4. Dangerous: The behavior poses a potential threat to the individual or people around them.

Question 23

Explain the bio-ecological model:

Answer 23

1. innermost circle (the child): biology, genetics, temperament)
2. Micro-system: interaction with child’s immediate environment (family, school, peers)
3. Meso-system: interaction between 2 micro-systems (e.g. family and home)
4. Exosystem: social and economic context (poverty, divorce). influence of systems without direct involvement child on active context (e.g. job parents on parents behavior)
5. Macro-system: Cultural context, beliefs, laws, language
6. Chrono-system: Child’s cumulative experience

Question 24

Give an example of an explanation of the bio-ecological model:

Answer 24

Macrosystem factors such as a downturn in the economy, for example, may entail a job search (change in exosystem); this activity causes a shift in family routines, including those associated with literacy, with parents in and out of the home at irregular times (home microsystem). It may even require moving to less expensive housing in a neighborhood served by a different school with altered literacy expectations (school microsystem and, potentially, homeschool mesosystem)

Question 25

Explain why the bio-ecological model is not a nesting view

Answer 25

In a nesting model, outer layers passively influence inner layers, with effects trickling inward.
In the bio-ecological model, the different systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) are continuously interacting with one another.

Unlike a rigid nesting model, the bio-ecological model emphasizes ongoing interactions (proximal processes) that change over time.

all systems influence each other reciprocally in a network-like manner, rather than a simple nesting structure.

In a simple nesting view, the environment shapes the individual in a one-directional way (outer layers affecting inner layers).
In the bio-ecological model, the individual actively interacts with and shapes their environment.

Question 26

Explain what the transactional model is

Answer 26

It explains how deviant behavior emerges through ongoing interactions between an individual and their environment. This model highlights that behavior is not solely caused by internal traits or external factors but rather results from the dynamic interaction between both.

Question 27

What is equifinality?

Answer 27

Several possible pathways may produce the same outcome > differential diagnosis needed.
Different factors lead to the same behavior

Question 28

What is multifinality?

Answer 28

similar risks may produce different outcomes depending on individual differences. One risk factor can lead to different outcomes. E.g. in the diathesis-stress model 2 people can have the same environmental factors but show different behaviors.

Question 29

what is multimodal/multimethod?

Answer 29

1. variety of informants (parents, teachers, child, peers)
2. variety of procedures (interviews, questionnaires, standardized tests)

Question 30

Explain what is meant by the DSM as a categorical system and what is wrong with it.

Answer 30

You get a diagnosis and thereby a label (clear-cut categories)
but:
- pathology may change with time
- comorbidity (what is the prime cause?)
- individual differences (multifinality and severity)
- it is more about the symptoms and not what it is causing it
- it is not a yes or no thing

Question 31

Name 4 key concepts of the transactional model

Answer 31

1. Bidirectional influence: Individuals influence their environment, and in turn, the environment shapes their behavior.
2. Cumulative effects over time: Deviant behavior develops over time through repeated interactions.
   E.g. Early life experiences (e.g., neglect, harsh discipline) can set a trajectory for later deviance, reinforced by continued negative social interactions.
3. Environmental reinforcement: Social groups, family dynamics, and peer relationships reinforce or discourage deviant behavior.
4. Reciprocal risk factors: Personal factors (e.g., impulsivity, low self-control) interact with environmental stressors (e.g., poverty, peer pressure) to escalate deviant behavior.
   For example, a child with ADHD may struggle with impulse control, leading to disciplinary actions in school, which further alienates them and increases risky behavior.

Question 32

Describe an example of the transactional model

Answer 32

A child who experiences harsh parenting may develop aggressive tendencies.
In school, teachers and peers may respond negatively, reinforcing the child’s antisocial behavior.
The child may then seek deviant peer groups, which further encourage delinquency.
Over time, criminal activity, substance abuse, or violence may emerge as a pattern.

Question 33

Name 2 implications of the transactional model

Answer 33

1. Early Intervention is Key: Since deviant behavior develops over time, early interventions (e.g., positive parenting, school support) can disrupt the cycle
2. Focus on Environment and Individual: Effective prevention and rehabilitation should address both personal traits and external influences (e.g., therapy + social programs).

Question 34

What is HGD in the transactional model?

Answer 34

A decision process in which developmental and learning problems are distinguished, analyzed, explanations for problems are sought and solutions are advised

• provide practical help to practival problems
• You start with an inventory of what is the problem and what is it what the client expects from me as a psychologist. You have to be clear about what the problem is. What is the behavior why you think that is the diagnosis. What solutions are there?

1. The aim is not diagnose but to give useful advice!
2. Systematic procedures: diagnostic cycle
3. Interactionist: adjusting needs and approach across contexts (see also Bio-ecological model)
4. Parents and schools are involved

Question 35

Explain what is meant by a dimensional classification system

Answer 35

Focus on understanding mental health and behavioral issues on a continuum rather than placing individuals into rigid categories.

For example, instead of diagnosing someone as either having or not having anxiety, a dimensional system would assess how severe their anxiety is (mild, moderate, severe).

This approach recognizes that symptoms often overlap, forming clusters of related issues rather than isolated disorders

Traditional classification systems assume disorders arise from a single underlying deficit (e.g., depression is caused by low serotonin).
Newer network models suggest that multiple interacting factors contribute to mental illness.

Despite the benefits of dimensional classification, healthcare systems, insurance policies, and treatment guidelines still rely on categorical diagnoses (e.g., DSM-5, ICD-10).
This is because clear-cut categories help with medical coding, resource allocation, and treatment decisions in public health systems.
However, integrating dimensional approaches into policy could lead to more personalized and flexible treatments.