Week 7

Question 1

Describe hypnosis

Answer 1

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness brought on by special techniques and characterised by responsiveness to suggestions for changes in experience and behaviour. Hypnotised people are not sleeping. You cannot be hypnotised unwillingly, and the more people want to cooperate with the hypnotist, the more likely it is that they will experience hypnosis.

Question 2

Explain the factors that make someone more susceptible to hypnosis

Answer 2

People with higher levels of hypnotic susceptibility have differences in certain brain structures, are more imaginative, tend to fantasise, tend to be suggestible, have a greater ability to focus attention, are able to process information quickly and effortlessly, and have more positive attitudes about hypnosis. About 10 per cent of adults are difficult or impossible to hypnotise.

Question 3

main changes hypnotised people can display

Answer 3

1. reduced planfulness, the ability to initiate action on their own,
2. redistributed attention, they ignore all but the hypnotist,
3. increased ability to fantasise,
4. increased role-taking, and
5. reduced reality testing.

Question 4

Describe state theory of hypnosis

Answer 4

According to state theories of hypnosis, hypnotised people experience an altered state of consciousness.

Question 5

Describe the non-state theory of hypnosis

Answer 5

According to non-state theories of hypnosis, like role theory, people under hypnosis merely act in accordance with the hypnotised role. They are not in a special state; they simply comply with the hypnotist’s directions.

Question 6

Describe the dissociation theory

Answer 6

According to dissociation theory, which is a blend of role and state theories,
hypnotised people dissociate, or split, various aspects of their behaviour and perceptions from the ‘self’ that normally controls these functions. Relaxation of this central control occurs as part of a social agreement to share control with the hypnotist.

Question 7

Explain Psychopharmacology

Answer 7

Most psychoactive drugs or substances influence the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors. These drugs get into the brain through the blood supply when they pass the blood-brain barrier.
· Drugs that act as agonists mimic the effects of neurotransmitters.
· Drugs acting as antagonists prevent neurotransmitters from binding with receptors and inhibit neurotransmitter activity.
· Other drugs work by increasing or decreasing the release of a specific neurotransmitter.
· And still others work by speeding or slowing the removal of a neurotransmitter from synapses.

Question 8

Describe the varying effects of drugs

Answer 8

Predicting a drug’s effects is complicated because most psychoactive drugs interact with many neurotransmitter systems. Drugs have desirable main effects, but many also have undesirable side effects.

Question 9

Explain drug abuse

Answer 9

Drug abuse (or substance abuse) is the pattern of use that causes serious social, legal, or interpersonal problems for the user.
· Psychological dependence occurs when a person continues to use the drug to gain a sense of wellbeing, even when the drug produces adverse consequences. However, the person can still function without the drug.
· Physical dependence or addiction is a physiological state in which continued use of the drug is required to prevent the onset of an unpleasant drug withdrawal (or withdrawal syndrome). Drug tolerance is a condition in which increasingly large drug doses are needed to produce the same effect. It may develop with prolonged use of a drug.
· By affecting the regulation of dopamine and other neurotransmitters in the brain’s ‘pleasure centres’, addictive drugs have the capacity to create tremendously rewarding effects in most people. The changes created in the brain by drug addiction can remain long after drug use ends, increasing the chance for relapse months or even years later.

Question 10

Explain how expectations can enhance the physiological effects of drugs

Answer 10

Drug effects are not determined by biochemistry alone. Learned expectations also play a role. People who think they have taken a drug but really haven’t may display the effects of the drug because they expect to be affected by it. Learned expectations regarding drug effects vary from culture to culture.

Question 11

Describe CNS Depressant drugs

Answer 11

CNS depressant drugs reduce central nervous system activity, partly by affecting the neurotransmitter GABA.

Question 12

Describe alcohol

Answer 12

Alcohol affects the neurotransmitters dopamine, endorphins, endocannabinoids, glutamate, serotonin, and GABA.
Alcohol affects specific brain regions. It reduces activity in the locus coeruleus and suppresses the hippocampus, cerebellum, and hindbrain mechanisms. Biological effects depend on the amount of alcohol the blood carries to the brain. Effects increase with faster drinking or drinking on an empty stomach, which speed the absorption of alcohol into the blood. Men tolerate higher amounts of alcohol than women. There are no effective measures to prevent or relieve the unpleasant hangover effects of overindulgence. Genetics also plays a role in determining the biochemical effects of alcohol and influences people’s tendency toward alcohol dependency.

Question 13

Describe Barbiturates

Answer 13

Also called downers or sleeping pills, barbiturates are extremely addictive. Small doses cause relaxation, some euphoria, and diminished attention, among other effects. Higher doses cause deep sleep but can distort normal sleep patterns. Overdoses can be fatal.

Question 14

Describe GHB

Answer 14

Gamma hydroxybutyrate or GHB is a naturally occurring substance similar to the neurotransmitter GABA. A laboratory-manufactured version of GHB (also known as ‘G’) has become a popular recreational drug. It is known for inducing relaxation, elation, loss of inhibition, suggestability, and increased sex drive. It can cause severe negative reactions, especially when combined with other drugs.

Question 15

Describe CNS Stimulating Drugs

Answer 15

CNS stimulating drugs increase central nervous system activity.

Question 16

Describe Amphetamines

Answer 16

Commonly known as uppers or speed, amphetamines increase norepinephrine and dopamine activity and decrease GABA activity. Amphetamines stimulate the brain and sympathetic nervous system, raising heart rate and blood pressure and constricting blood vessels. Continued use results in a variety of mental and physical problems

Question 17

Describe Cocaine

Answer 17

Cocaine’s effects are similar to but more rapid than those of amphetamines. Additionally, the effects of cocaine are short-lived, which may help explain why this drug is especially addictive both psychologically and physiologically, particularly crack, a purified, highly potent form of cocaine. Cocaine stimulates self-confidence and optimism. Continued use results in a variety of mental and physical problems and overdoses can be deadly. Ending a cocaine addiction is difficult. Numerous pharmacological and psychological treatments have been tried with mixed results, particularly over the long term.

Question 18

Describe Caffeine

Answer 18

Caffeine is the world’s most popular drug. This drug reduces drowsiness and can enhance cognitive performance and vigilance. It improves problem-solving, increases physical work capacity, and raises urine production. Caffeine can cause physical dependence.

Question 19

Describe Nicotine

Answer 19

This drug stimulates the autonomic nervous system. It enhances the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, increases the release of glutamate, activates the dopamine-related pleasure system, and stimulates endogenous cannabinoid and opioid systems. It can improve mood, memory, and attention. Regular nicotine use can cause psychological and/or physiological dependence. Smoking is a major risk factor for cancer, heart disease and respiratory disorders.

Question 20

Describe MDMA

Answer 20

Also called ‘ecstasy’, MDMA increases the activity of dopamine neurons and is a serotonin agonist. It leads to some of the same effects as those produced by cocaine and amphetamines. With continued use, MDMA’s positive effects decrease, but its negative effects persist. Although MDMA does not appear to be physically addictive, it does cause permanent brain damage.

Question 21

Describe opiates

Answer 21

Opiates, which include opium, morphine, heroin, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and propoxyphene cause sleep and pain relief. Opiates depress activity in wide areas of the cerebral cortex, they act as agonists for endorphins, and they appear to stimulate the endocannabinoid system, which may explain their euphoric effects. They are highly addictive partly because they stimulate a type of glutamate receptor that can physically change a neuron’s structure.

Question 22

Describe Hallucinogenic Drugs

Answer 22

Hallucinogenic drugs, also called psychedelics or psychotomimetics, cause a loss of contact with reality and induce changes in emotion, perception, and thought. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is one of the most powerful psychedelics. LSD stimulates serotonin receptors in the forebrain. Unpleasant hallucinations and delusions can occur unpredictably. LSD is not addictive, but tolerance does develop. It can cause paranoia, panic attacks and flashbacks.

Question 23

Describe Ketamine

Answer 23

Veterinarians use ketamine as an anaesthetic and doctors use it for critically ill patients or for suppressing dangerous seizure activity. People steal it to use as a recreational drug called ‘Special K’. It causes dissociative feelings that people describe as an ‘out of body’ experience, but it causes memory damage.

Question 24

Describe Marijuana

Answer 24

The active ingredient in the hemp plant Cannabis sativa is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC alters the blood flow to many brain regions. Low doses cause restlessness and hilarity, followed by carefree relaxation, vivid sensations, and food cravings. THC collects in the brain and reproductive organs. The brain contains several receptors for THC and produces a number of natural ‘endogenous cannabinoids’ whose receptors respond to THC.