Week 6- inchoate offences Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an inchoate offence and how does it differ to accessorial liability?

A
  • Inchoate offences are those which include attempts, conspiracy, assisting or encouraging, and are said to be crimes in their early stages, far removed from the level of harm which would actually be caused from the planned or attempted offence.
  • Crimes of attempt per se do not exist, only attempts at substantive offences eg robbery or murder.
  • Inchoates differ from accessorial liability- in accessorial liability Ds liability derives from Ps commission of the full offence, whereas in inchoates, these offences are committed before the commission of any full offence. Implications include inability to ‘withdraw’ from an inchoate offence, whereas with secondary liability there is the possibility that someone withdraws and neutralises their involvement.
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2
Q

What does s1(1) and s1(3) of the CAA 1981 say (repeals common law of attempts)

A

1(1) “if, with intent to commit an offence to which the section applies, a person does an act which is more than merely preparatory to the commission of the offence, he is guilty of attempting to commit the offence”

1(3): In any case where—
(a)apart from this subsection a person’s intention would not be regarded as having amounted to an intent to commit an offence; but
(b)if the facts of the case had been as he believed them to be, his intention would be so regarded,
(IMPOSSIBILITY)

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3
Q

What does the CAA suggest is the requisite MR towards the AR of the substantive offence (for attempts), as re-affirmed in Pace and Rogers?

A

INTENTIONAL CONDUCT: D must intend to perform the relevant act that goes beyond merely preparatory, which therefore can render it to be considered as a purposive intent, oblique intent or recklessness cannot suffice.
-When the substantive offence requires proof as to the result or consequence, the offence of attempt will require proof of an intention as to that consequence. This is straightforward when the MR of the substantive offence is also intention eg murder, however some require less than intention ie recklessness eg manslaughter. Clearly yo cannot have an intention to be reckless towards killing someone.

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4
Q

What does the law/ Pace and Rogers say about the MR of the circumstances relating to the offence eg consent?

A
  • There must also be intention or knowledge as the facts rendering the AR guilty ie when someone attempts to handle stolen goods, they must be aware that the goods are in fact stolen, he cant be guilty of an attempt to do so by mere recklessness, where he recognises that the circumstances could render his intentional actions illegal but he is not intending that they are.
  • In this case they foresaw the metal might be stolen, but in fact it was owned by the police, and therefore did not intend that it was stolen and were subsequently not liable.
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5
Q

What are the facts and significance of Pace and Rogers?

A

Facts-The facts of Pace and Rogers is that DD were convicted of attempting to conceal, disguise or convert criminal property. They ran a scrap metal business and were approached by undercover police officers attempting to sell them metal, which they suspected might be stolen (reckless as to circumstances) but was in fact not stolen. If it had been stolen, they would’ve committed the substantive offence, so long as they knew or suspected it to be stolen. There was only proof of recklessness towards the metal being stolen, and their appeals were allowed as a result.

Principle- CA took a strict approach, saying even if recklessness was the necessary MR towards the circumstance rendering it illegal, anyone who attempts it must intend that these circumstances are the case. This therefore differs to the wider view held in A-Gs reference, in which the MR of the substantive offence must be held by he who attempts the commission of the offence, even if that MR is mere recklessness

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6
Q

What was the principle which Lord Davis attempted to create in Pace and Rogers, and why is it not universally applicable.

A

“Turning, then, to s1(1) we consider that, as a matter of ordinary language and in accordance with principle, an ‘intent to commit an offence’ connotes an intent to commit all the elements of the offence. WE can see no sufficient basis, whether linguistic or purposive, for construing it otherwise”

-Perhaps as a matter of law, LJ Davis is correct, but as a matter of morality, this cannot be a principle which applies to every case ie attempted rape.

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7
Q

What were the facts and principle in Khan??

A

Facts- charged with the attempted rape of a 16-year-old girl, B. A had unsuccessfully tried to engage in sexual intercourse with B. The trial judge directed the jury that the issues relevant to the mens rea for attempted rape were the same as for a charge of rape. It was therefore directed that the offences of both rape and attempted rape require 1) an intention to have sexual intercourse, and 2) knowledge of, or recklessness as to, the absence of consent. The men were convicted and appealed.

Principle-CA held that unless intention was the necessary MR towards the circumstances rendering it illegal, then foresight or recklessness would suffice. So if the substantive offence had a MR requirement of belief or suspicion (eg rape) proof of recklessness will suffice for a charge of attempt.

  • with regards to consequences, there must be intention as to the consequence of the substantive crime.
  • Under Pace and Rogers principle, recklessness as to the consent of V on Ds behalf would not suffice for attempted rape, why should the failed rapist escape liability for attempting to fulfil the missing elements of rape with the requisite mens rea.
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8
Q

A-Gs reference (No 3 of 1992), what is said about circumstances and consequences?

A

Facts- DD had thrown petrol bombs at a car and missed, guilty of attempting aggravated arson

Principle– A defendant, in order to be guilty of an attempt, must be in one of the states of mind required for the commission of the full offence, and did his best, so far as he could, to supply what was missing from the completion of the offence. It is the policy of the law that such people should be punished notwithstanding that in fact intentions of defendants have not been fulfilled”
-this extends the scope decided in Khan, in that someone could be reckless as to the consequence but intend the circumstances ie someone who is aware that tampering with another’s property (his land lords tv cabling) but is reckless as to whether the cabling is damaged.

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9
Q

What is the issue with the principle set in Pace and ROgers?

A
  • The critics of Pace and Rogers explain how it could be difficult to secure a conviction for attempting to commit a crime in circumstances where D, despite that fact he has not committed the substantive offence, has demonstrated a high degree of cupability.
  • For example, in an attempted rape where D fails to penetrate, on the reasoning in Pace and Rogers, it would be held that he would only be guilty if he intended to penetrate but also intended that V did not consent. When in reality its more likely that D is reckless as to whether V consents; this should not exclude him from being liable for attempted rape.
  • As Duff argues, D would be liable for rape If he succeeded, despite only being reckless as to her consent, and therefore he should be liable for an attempted rape when displaying the same mens rea of recklessness, and therefore those in Khan would not be guilty
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10
Q

What is the issue with the principle set in A-Gs reference 1992 no 3, and what example can be used to illustrate this over-broadening?

A
  • Too broad an application when read literally, leading to over criminalisation, and doesn’t actually represent the meaning of s1(1) of CAA 1981.
  • What this does is extend the liability of one who is RECKLESS as to the CONSEQUENCE (foresee they might commit the AR of a crime) if there is an INTENTION OR KNOWLEDGE as to the MISSING CIRCUMSTANCES.. Therefore, it would lead to a conviction of people who are reckless towards the consequence ie they foresee that they might commit the AR even though they know that if they were to commit the crime, they have the knowledge or intend that circumstances which render it illegal. An example would be someone attempting DIY who intends that the property they are going to tamper with is not theirs (owner by the land-lord) but is reckless as to whether it will actually damage it. He should not be guilty of an attempt of criminal damage, says Smith and Hogan.
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11
Q

Can Ds intention be conditional for an attempt charge, how does the CAA show this?

A

-The CAA 1981 act solved this problem of conditional intent because It expresses that someone can be guilty of an attempt of trying to steal something in a holdall (in Husseyn it was sub-aqua equipment) even if the holdall was empty. It is no bar to conviction even if the substantive effect is impossible. He is no different from someone who attempts to steal from an empty pocket.

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12
Q

What was the position regarding the AR of an offence prior to CAA 1981??

A

‘Was Ds act sufficiently PROXIMATE to the substantive offence to be properly described as an attempt?’ was the common law position, which lacked legal certainty and clarity (in essay use examples of preparatory things that an attempted murderer could do eg target practice or planning an ambush position which wouldn’t be criminal under the common law, therefore positive impact on the law.)
-Very narrow view, in that acts could be more than merely preparatory ie driving to the prospective crime scene with a gun, but this wasn’t proximate to the actual commission of the crime ie pointing the gun at the victim.

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13
Q

What is the position on the AR of attempt crimes following CAA 1981??

A
  • The act has not been construed as re-affirming the proximate test, any act more than merely preparatory without being the last act will suffice (middle ground between the two). The word ‘merely’ appears to be the distinguishing feature here. S and H suggest any preparatory act sufficient for liability as an attempt is any act D commits when he is engaged in the commission of the substantive crime.
  • The substantive act must first be studied to decide the grounds for attempt liability. Fraud is a crime in which many acts are done which can constitute an attempt before the actual point at which fraud is complete, whereas a wound or murder is committed in much fewer steps and therefore liability for attempts may not accrue until very near to the murder taking place.
  • After assessing substantive offence, two questions for jury a) what acts did D do? B)whether they were more than merely preparatory.
  • Overall it appears necessary that acts which are more than merely preparatory are those which are done ‘on the job’ as Rowlatt J put it.
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14
Q

Facts and principle in Stonehouse 1978 (before CAA) (attempts AR)

A

Facts- D faked his death abroad. He was charged in England with attempting to obtain property by deception, the property being the benefit of various insurance policies.

Principle- The jury were directed that such an act not only could but did constitute an attempt. Following Eagleton, the Lords said that a mere intention to commit a misdemeanour is not criminal; not all acts towards misdemeanour are criminal, but acts immediately connected to it are” (narrow view prior to the act)

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15
Q

Campbell 1991 facts and principle (AR of attempt)

A

Facts- D was arrested by police when, armed with a fake gun, he approached within a yard of the door of a post office with intent to commit robbery

Principle- . His conviction for attempted robbery was quashed as courts held there was not enough evidence for them to say his acts were ‘properly and safely’ more than merely preparatory, epitomising a very strict approach to the meaning of ‘attempts’. This formed much of the reasoning of the law coms further recommendations for reform.

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16
Q

Robinson 1915 facts and principle (way before CAA)

A

Facts- , a jeweller, having insured his stock against theft, concealed some of it on his premises, tied himself up with string and called for help. The policeman who found him didn’t believe his story and found the jewellery. D confessed his intentions to get money by false pretences, but his conviction was quashed

Principle- The stage had been set, but the commission of the offence by which he obtains money from the insurers would’ve been subject to many more acts and therefore this was held to be merely preparatory. Today this would’ve been fraud but in 1915 this could only have been mere preparation for gaining by false pretences

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17
Q

What is the current position of attempted crimes by omission, and the position following Webley v Buxton regarding successful attempts?

A

Attempt by omission:
-As usual, an offence committed where someone had a duty to act and fails to do so can constitute liability via omission. If the parents of a child purposely withhold food intending that the child dies, they are attempting to commit murder. However if there can be no evidence collected which says that they ‘acted’ in withdrawing food, they may escape liability for such an attempt.
Successful attempts:
-the principle in Webley v Buxton is the correct one, in that an attempt to commit a misdemeanour becomes subsumed within the successful completed offence. The greater includes the less, and someone who is guilty of an attempt of murder and then V dies, this does not negate his liability for attempt.

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18
Q

what was the objectively innocent test created in Anderton v Ryan and what were the facts?

A

This case showed the first understanding of the 1981 CAA law, and held that an offence of attempt could not be committed where it was impossible to commit, or there was no evidence which could be shown that the full offence was committable. This created the objectively innocent test.
-The defendant was found in possession of a video recorder. She refused to name the source but admitted that she believed it to be stolen. After it became clear that there was no evidence that it was in fact stolen, she was convicted of attempting to handle stolen goods. The 1981 Act had changed the common law position, and the mere doing of preparatory acts which, if completed would constitute an offence, was not now sufficient. A conviction was now prevented where the full offence could not follow from the preparatory acts. None of the subsections would turn what was in fact an innocent act into an offence of attempting to commit the crime, merely by virtue of the defendant’s criminal intent.

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19
Q

How did Shivpuri over-rule the Principle regarding impossible offences created in Ryan v Anderton?
ie the objectively innocent rule?

A

Shivpuri [1987] AC 1: This case overruled the thinking in Anderton v Ryan. Shivpuri (S) was persuaded to act as a drugs courier. S collected a suitcase which contained several packages of white powder which he admitted in police interview that he believed to be either heroin or cannabis but was in fact legal snuff. S was charged with attempting to be knowingly concerned
in dealing with and harbouring the controlled drug of heroin. it is immaterial that S did not know the exact nature of the substance in his possession, but nevertheless believed he was dealing with controlled drugs the importation of which was prohibited. The statutory offence of attempt under Section 1 of the 1981Act requires (1) an act which was more than merely preparatory to the commission of an offence and (2) the accused intended to commit an offence.

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20
Q

what is a conspiracy and how broad was it under the common law?

A

-Conspiracy is an agreement between two or more people to commit a crime. Common law defined as an agreement to do an unlawful act or a lawful act by unlawful means. Common law used unlawful broadly, to include some torts, fraud, corruption of public morals, outraging of public decency, going far beyond other inchoate offences.

21
Q

What are the features of the agreement in conspiracy and how does it affect conspiracy if only one of the two people will perform the AR of the substantive crime?

A

-conspiracy is a continuing offence, and D can be convicted of conspiracy even if he personally wont commit the crime. If they agree to commit the crime, it is immaterial that the AR is completed by one person rather than both. Once the agreement is made, the crime is committed.

22
Q

What are wheel and chain conspiracies?

A

-Wheel and chain conspiracies- Co-conspirators can be guilty even if there is no direct communication between them, it might be that 1,2 and 3 are all in contact with X and all agree with X that they will rob a bank. Same when there is a chain conspiracy, where communication and agreement happens along a chain of defendants.

23
Q

Can two people conspire without communication of a common purpose?

A

-The agreement of the common purpose is important, two people who individually to pursue the same course of conduct with no connection at all cannot be co-conspirators. Even if D1 and D2 knew of each other’s individual intentions, no crime of conspiracy is committed with agreement, tacit understanding of each other’s or other parties intentions does not suffice.

24
Q

Who can and can’t be parties to conspiracies?

A

Can:
Corporations ie companies can be parties to conspiracies, but a CEO who attempts to commit an illegality under the companies name but doesn’t communicate, this cannot be a conspiracy

Cant: -Spouse or civil partner (s2(2))= common law rule that civil partners are said to be one person with one single will, therefore they cannot conspire to commit a crime, but marriage after the offence or during its continuance is no defence

  • Infants- those under the age of 10 cannot be guilty of a crime
  • Victims- A victim cannot be a co-conspirator in a crime against themselves, but Gnango suggests victim needs a narrow meaning
  • Solo conspirators: it is not a defence that one person of the two conspirators cannot commit the principal offence, so long as A and B agree that A commit the crime
25
Q

What is the significance of timing and proof of an agreement in rendering people liable for conspiracy?

A

-Timing: no need that agreement happened way in advanced of the crime, just that it happens between D1 and D2 before the crime is committed. Evidence of proof of agreement is rare as agreements usually happen in private. Conspiracy often has to be inferred from co-ordinated arrangements between parties, but often such acts may be evidence of conspiracy rather than being conclusive.

26
Q

What was the Narrow view as to the ‘course of conduct’ as taken in Nock 1978 under the common law?

A
  • Narrow view of ‘course of conduct’ as undertaken in Nock1978 AC 979, BEFORE THE ACT:
  • Facts- defendants agree to extract cocaine from a substance by subjecting it to a certain process, but the substance contained no cocaine. The HL interpreted course of conduct to mean proof only of the physical acts. If D1 and D2 agreed on that course of conduct, it would not necessarily amount to or involve the commission of the crime.
  • the narrow view was therefore that the course of conduct agreed cannot equate to conspiracy if it won’t necessarily amount to the commission of the crime.
27
Q

What does the CAA 1981 say with regards to impossible crimes?

A

If D1 and D2 agree that a course “shall be pursued which, if the agreement is carried out in accordance with their intentions, either a)will necessarily amount to or involve the commission of the offence by one or more of the parties to the agreement, or b) would do so but for the existence of facts which render the commission of the offence impossible, they are guilty of conspiracy to commit the offence(s) in question”

28
Q

What is the impact of consequences and circumstances not arising which are necessary for the commission of the crime

A
  • Consequences: If D1 and D2 conspire to murder by putting poison in Vs tea, but V decides not to drink the tea, this should still be conspiracy to murder. Its not a question of impossibility, just that the circumstances have rendered that they have not succeeded in killing. Course of conduct must be read to include the intended consequences, in this case the death of V
  • Circumstances/ existence of facts at the time it is to be carried out: it may not always be possible to say that going through with the intended acts will necessarily amount to a crime being committed, as circumstances may change. Yet an intent to do something and to conspire to commit a crime which eventually becomes impossible (or not necessary) should still amount to conspiracy, because the course of conduct will not amount to a criminal act
29
Q

What is the impact of conditional agreements in conspiracy?

A
  • Two defendants who agree to commit a crime eg robbery only if it is safe cannot be said to not be conspiring to commit the robbery. It is more complicated where there is other courses of conduct which might be pursued, such as an agreement to only commit a crime if a legal route isn’t viable.
  • An agreement to do something which doesn’t mention pursuing a course of conduct towards a criminal act cannot be said to be conspiracy. If money launderers say they will transfer money if it is not illicit, they can’t be conspirators just because there’s a chance to launder illicit money too. If they declare they only will transfer money if its legal, they are definitely not conspirators. If they acknowledge that the money is illegal and conspire to transfer money even if it is illegal, this is a form of direct intention, their intention to continue to transfer illegal money does not preclude them from liability as conspirators.
30
Q

Which case shows that you cannot conspire to aid and abet a crime (or attempt to)?

A

-Kenning [2009] QB 221 has confirmed that ‘an agreement to aid and abet an offence is not in law capable of constituting conspiracy under section 1(1) of the 1977 act. They sold materials which could be used for the growing of cannabis but exhibited a notice warning customer’s against this. They told undercover police however of the profits to be made.
Held: The appeal succeeded. An agreement which amounted to no more than to aid and abet an offence did not constitute a criminal conspiracy

31
Q

What is the vital mens Rea elements of conspiracy?

A
  • It must be intended that the two parties will come to an agreement about the commission of a course of conduct towards a crime, it cannot be done recklessly, whereby D1 foresees D2 might believe him and D1 agree to a crime but in fact D1 does not intend to agree to conspire. D must intentionally use conduct that might be construed as offering an agreement (in a non-contractual sense)
  • It is important that not only do the two parties intend to agree to the conspiracy but also intend to carry out their agreement, unsurprising because the intent is to cause the forbidden result, just like in an attempt.
32
Q

Anderson 1986 facts and significance (conspiracy)

Why should Anderson not be followed with regards to lowering the mens Rea element of conspiracy?

A

Anderson[1986] AC 27: facts: D was convicted with a number of others to enable one of them to escape from prison, agreeing to supply diamond wire to cut bars, but conceded that he didn’t think it would materialise and felt it was impossible. This was no defence. Lord Bridge held that it was sufficient that a conspirator had agreed to the criminal course of conduct be pursued and that he would play his role, but that it was not necessary to prove in addition that he intended the crime to be committed. It was clear that two or more defendants did intend it to be carried out, so he could be convicted for aiding and abetting the conspiracy.

  • the decision that no intention need to be proved on the part of one alleged principal offender in conspiracy would significantly alter the scope of the offence. But if A doesn’t need intention, then neither does B, and there cant be a conspiracy without any intention to commit an offence.
  • Therefore, in this sense Anderson should not be followed.
33
Q

What is the mens Rea required as to the circumstances rendering It an offence?

A

What this shows is that even if the MR of the substantive crime is one of recklessness or something else less than intention, these have no place in conspiracy and conspiracy cannot be done without intention.

  • Knowledge comprises of fact or circumstances which must be proved as part of the actus reus. The offence is stricter than that of the substantive offence, because they must intend or have knowledge that the facts or circumstances will exist, mere suspicion or belief will not suffice for conspiracy.
  • recklessness as to the circumstance of the AR (property belonging to another) is not a sufficient MR on a charge of conspiracy to commit a crime (criminal damage) even where it is sufficient mens rea for the crime itself.
34
Q

What is the position if only one of the two parties have mens Rea, and what if one of the two conspirators manage to be acquitted?

A

Where only one party have Mens rea: s1(2) makes it clear that both parties are required to have the mens rea (or where there are more than two, at least two have mens rea). If D1 and D2 agree to touch V sexually and D1 knows that she is only 15, there is no conspiracy if D2 reasonably believed her to be 16.

Acquittal of the other alleged conspirators:
-The acquittal of one of the two conspirators does not preclude the other party from facing liability. It is only when the evidence against D or E is of very similar weight where they must choose to convict or acquit both.

35
Q

Facts and significance in Yip-Chiu Cheng (mens Rea of conspiracy)

A

Facts- The defendant entered into an agreement with an undercover narcotics officer in a hotel in Hong Kong. The agreement was that the defendant was to give the officer 5kg of heroin to be smuggled into Australia. In return, the officer was to receive US$16,000. The police officer never flew into Australia and in fact never met the defendant because of a cancelled flight.

Significance=Lord Griffiths in this case said ‘the crime of conspiracy requires an agreement between two or more persons to commit an unlawful act WITH THE INTENT OF CARRYING IT OUT. IT IS THE INTENT TO CARRY OUT THE SUBSTANTIVE OFFENCE THAT CONSTITUTES THE MENS REA OF THE OFFENCE.’

36
Q

What was the common law version of encouraging or assisting and which act replaced it?

A

At common law it was an offence for D to incite another person, P, to do or cause to be done an act of acts, which, if done by P, would involve the commission of the offence of offences by P. Had to be shown that D intended, or believed that P, if he acted as D encouraged him, would do so with the fault required for the offence or offences.
-Serious crime act 2007 abolished common law inciting, replacing it was 3 new provisions

37
Q

What were the 3 provisions in s44, s45. and s46

A
  • D does an act that is capable of encouraging or assisting another, P, Intending to encourage or to assist P, to commit an offence (s44)
  • D does an act that is capable of encouraging or assisting P, believing that the offence by P will be committed, and D believes that his act will encourage or assist its commission (s45)
  • D does an act that is capable of encouraging or assisting the commission of one or more of a number of offences by P, and he believes a) that one or more of those crimes will be committed (without having an belief as to which particular crimes) and b) that his act will encourage or assist the commission of one or more of them (s46)
38
Q

Why Is assisting and encouraging a inchoate?

A
  • The crime is committed once the AR of assisting or encouraging is done (with the mens Rea). It is immaterial whether Ds A or E does in fact effect P or whether P commits the crime at all.
  • The charge is also available when P has in fact committed the offence, which overlaps with the aiders and abettors act 1861
39
Q

What are the 4 requisite mens Rea for a charge of A or E under s44 of serious crime act?

A

1) intention to do acts capable of A or E
2) Intention to assist or encourage(recklessness as to whether he would assist or encourage not sufficient)
3) Ds mens rea as to Ps mens rea. i)D believed that, were the act to be done, it would be done with that fault or ii)D was RECKLESS as to whether or not it would be done with the fault (indifferent) or iii) Ds state of mind was such that, were he to do it, it would be done with that fault.
4) D must have MR as to consequences and circumstances. By s47(5) it must be proved that “i)D believed (or purposively intended) that, were the act to be done, it would be done with those circumstances or with those consequences or ii) D was reckless as to whether or not it would be done in those circumstances

40
Q

What are the parts of A or E where only intention suffices and what are the parts where recklessness can suffice?

A

Intention- intention to do acts capable of A or E for P
-Intention to assist or encourage P

Reckless-

  • Reckless as to whether P will act with the requisite mens Rea of the substantive crime
  • Reckless as to circumstances or consequences rendering it illegal
41
Q

What defences will apply to a crime under s44 of the serious crime act? (assist or encourage)

A

Defences and exceptions to s44:
-Standard defences such as infancy, insanity, self-defence will apply to provide D with an acquittal. Reasonable conduct as per section 50 of SCA 2007.
(objective reasonableness suffices)

42
Q

What 3 examples are there by the law com of defences to A or E in operation?

A

1) D changes motorway lanes to allow P to overtake, knowing that P is speeding.
2) D bars his door to a man trying to escape P, an attacked
3) D, who works at a DIY shop, believes P will cause criminal damage using spray paint.

43
Q

How can a principal be guilty of assisting or encouraging his own crime>

A

-4) The offences are also available against P, for example, as in the Law Com 300, P can be liable if “P asked D to supply him or her with an article so that P can commit an offence, P is doing an act capable of encouraging D to do an act capable of assisting P to commit an offence. IN other words, if D supplies the article to P, not only is D committing at least the s45 offence, but, by encouraging D to commit the s45 offence, P is committing the s44 offence.

44
Q

What is the offence of assisting or encouraging under s45??

A
  • D does an act that is capable of encouraging or assisting P, believing that the offence by P will be committed, and D believes that his act will encourage or assist its commission (s45)
45
Q

What is the actus reus required for both s44 and s45 of assisting or encouraging, an how does s65 and 66 extend the meaning of ‘acts capable’?

A

= Again, ds act only must be capable of assisting or encouraging P, no requirement that it does in fact help, can also be achieved by a course of conduct. Extended definitions in s65 and 66 (taking steps to reduce the possibility of criminal proceedings being brought, and failing to fulfil a duty) also apply.

46
Q

How does the MR of an offence under s45 of A and E differ to that of an offence under s44?

A

= Differs significantly from the MR under s44. Belief is a state of awareness greater than mere suspicion but short of knowledge. Unlike s44, D need not intend that the criminal act by P should be done, D must believe that the criminal act will be done and that his own act will encourage or assist p.

  • D must believe that the conduct element of the substantive offence will be committed.
  • D must be proved to have intended or believed that his act will (not might) encourage or assist P
  • D must also be reckless as to whether P will have mens rea
  • D must also be reckless as to circumstances or consequences rendering it an offence.
47
Q

What is the policy argument surrounding not punishing those who are in the middle ground between more than merely preparatory and proximate to the offence?

A

Trade off between protecting the public from prospective criminals against allowing the prospective criminal to change his mind and Course of action

48
Q

What is ‘cross the rubicon and burn the bridge’ argument?

A

An argument which says that an attempter must not be able to change his Course of action and the course of conduct is going to lead to the commission of the crime (barring impossibility)