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EBP 2 > Week 6 & 7 > Flashcards

Week 6 & 7 Flashcards

1
Q

When do you do a non-parametric test?

A

When the basic assumptions for a parametric test are not met

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2
Q

Non- parametric statistics are based on…?

A
  • Comparisons of ranks of scores

* Comparisons of counts(yes/no) or “signs” of scores

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3
Q

Non- parametric statistics are ___ compared to parametric statistics

A

Non- parametric statistics are less powerful compared to parametric statistics

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4
Q

What kind of parametric test do you perform when you have 2 independent groups?

A

Unpaired t-test

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5
Q

What kind of parametric test do you perform when you have 2 related scores?

A

Paired t-test

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6
Q

What kind of parametric test do you perform when you have 3 or more independent groups?

A

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (F)

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7
Q

What kind of parametric test do you perform when you have 3 or more related scores?

A

One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (MANOVA)

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8
Q

What kind of non-parametric test do you perform when you have 2 independent groups?

A

Mann-Whitney U test

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9
Q

What kind of non-parametric test do you perform when you have 2 related scores?

A
  • Sign test

- Wilcoxon signed ranks test (T)

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10
Q

What kind of non-parametric test do you perform when you have 3 or more independent groups?

A
  • Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance by ranks (H or x^2)
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11
Q

What kind of non-parametric test do you perform when you have 3 or more related scores?

A

Friedman two way analysis of variance by ranks

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12
Q

True or False

You’re able to perform a non-parametric test on complex designs like a 2 x 3

A

FALSE

Unable to perform on more complex designs (e.g. 2x3)

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13
Q

What question is being asked in the comparison based on ranks in a non-parametric t-test?

A

Is the difference in ranks larger than would be expected by chance alone?

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14
Q

What question is being asked in the comparison based on signs in a non-parametric t-test?

A

Is the difference in sign frequencies larger than would be expected by chance alone?

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15
Q

What type of test do we use when the IV and DV are both on the nominal level?

A

Chi- Square

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16
Q

What are you looking at in a chi-square?

A

Are observed frequencies different than expected frequencies

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17
Q

What are the 2 types of chi square?

A
  • Goodness of fit

* Tests of independence (association)

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18
Q

What do you do in the goodness of fit chi square test?

A

• Compare observed frequencies of 1 variable to uniform frequencies of another

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19
Q

What is an example of the goodness of fit chi square test?

A

• Eg: flip coin 50 times. Get 15 heads & 35 tails. Is this difference due to chance or a “real” bias?

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20
Q

____ chi square test is much more common?

A

Tests of independence (association)

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21
Q

What do you do in the tests of independence (association) chi square test?

A

Compare observed frequencies from 1 variable to observed frequencies of another variable

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22
Q

What is an example of the tests of independence (association) chi square test?

A

Eg: Is owning a mac laptop related to gender?

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23
Q

What is the McNemar test?

A

Requirement of chi-square is that variable levels must be independent (e.g. can’t be “healed” and “unhealed”)

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24
Q

___ is the form of a chi square test that is used for 2x2 with correlated sample

A

McNemar test is the form of a chi square test that is used for 2x2 with correlated sample

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25
Q

What is a phi coefficient?

A

A correlation coefficient for 2 nominal variables/ degrees of association for 2x2

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26
Q

The phi coefficient is based off the ___

A

The phi coefficient is based off the chi-square test

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27
Q

What is the IV level of measurement for a t- test?

A

Nominal

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28
Q

What is the IV level of measurement for an ANOVA?

A

Nominal

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29
Q

What is the IV level of measurement for a non parametric test?

A

Nominal

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30
Q

What is the DV level of measurement for a t- test?

A

Continuous

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31
Q

What is the DV level of measurement for an ANOVA?

A

Continuous

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32
Q

What is the DV level of measurement for a non parametric test?

A

Ordinal

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33
Q

What is the question asked with a t-test?

A

Difference between means?

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34
Q

What is the question asked with an ANOVA?

A

Difference between means?

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35
Q

What is the question asked with a non parametric test?

A

Ranks different?

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36
Q

What is the IV level of measurement for a correlation?

A

Continuous

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37
Q

What is the IV level of measurement for a regression?

A

Continuous

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38
Q

What is the DV level of measurement for a correlation?

A

Continuous

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39
Q

What is the DV level of measurement for a regression?

A

Continuous

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40
Q

What is the question asked with a correlation?

A

Strength of association?

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41
Q

What is the question asked with a regression?

A

Strength of prediction?

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42
Q

What does a correlation have to do with?

A

A pair of scores and how much they co-vary

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43
Q

What does it mean for something to co-vary?

A

Directly or inversely proportional. When one is high, so is the other and vice versa

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44
Q

What are the things that a correlation looks at?

A
  • Do they vary together (covary)?
  • How strong is their linear relationship?
  • What is the nature of the relationship?
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45
Q

A correlation has to be ___

A

A correlation has to be linear

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46
Q

What is a correlation coefficient?

A

A number that quantifies the strength of a linear relationship that can range from -1 to 1

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47
Q

What does it mean when a correlation coefficient is closer to 1, whether positive or negative?

A

Closer to |1.00|, higher strength of relationship

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48
Q

What does the sign of the correlation coefficient indicate?

A

The direction

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49
Q

The tighter the grouping of the linear relationship, the ___ the correlation coefficient

A

The tighter the grouping of the linear relationship, the higher the correlation coefficient

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50
Q

What does a 0.00- 0.25 coefficient correlation mean?

A

Little or no relationship

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51
Q

What does a 0.26- 0.50 coefficient correlation mean?

A

Fair relationship

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52
Q

What does a 0.51- 0.75 coefficient correlation mean?

A

Moderate to good

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53
Q

What does a 0.75- 1.00 coefficient correlation mean?

A

Good to excellent

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54
Q

What is the coefficient of determination?

A

• The square of the correlation coefficient

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55
Q

What is the coefficient of determination equal to?

A

The percent of variance in one variable that is explained (or accounted for) by the other variable

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56
Q

What is the significance of the coefficient correlation?

A

To test the null hypothesis

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57
Q

What is the null hypothesis as it relates to the coefficient correlation?

A

The correlation between variable x and variable y is not significantly different from zero.

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58
Q

Coefficient correlation is very sensitive to ___

A

Coefficient correlation is very sensitive to * sample size*

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59
Q

What is the most common type of correlation coefficient?

A

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)

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60
Q

When is the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient applicable?

A

When both variables continuous (Interval or Ratio scale)

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61
Q

What is the Spearman Rank (rho) Correlation Coefficient (rs)?

A

Non-parametric analog of Pearson r

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62
Q

When is the Spearman Rank (rho) Correlation Coefficient (rs) applicable?

A

When 1 continuous, 1 ordinal variable or 2 ordinal variables

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63
Q

When do you use a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb)?

A

When one variable is dichotomous, and the other variable continuous (interval or ratio)

64
Q

When does a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb) not work?

A

Doesn’t work with non-dichotomous nominal (e.g Age & Race)

65
Q

Computationally, a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb) is the same as a ___

A

Computationally, a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb) is the same as a Pearson’s r

66
Q

The results of a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb) is the same as ___

A

The results of a Point Biserial Correlation (rpb) is the same as a t-test

67
Q

When do you use a Rank Biserial Correlation (rrb)?

A

When one variable is dichotomous (nominal), and the other variable is ordinal

68
Q

A Rank Biserial Correlation (rrb) is computationally about the same as ___

A

A Rank Biserial Correlation (rrb) is computationally about the same as Spearman Rank

69
Q

When do you use a Phi coefficient (Φ)?

A

When both variables dichotomous

70
Q

A Phi coefficient (Φ) is computationally same as ___ (special case)

A

A Phi coefficient (Φ) is computationally same as Pearson’s r (special case)

71
Q

A scatterplot is ___ with a Phi coefficient (Φ)

A

A scatterplot is worthless with a Phi coefficient (Φ)

72
Q

Can a Phi coefficient (Φ) work with a non- dichotomous nominal?

A

NO

73
Q

A Phi coefficient (Φ) is similar to a ____, but unlike it, a Phi coefficient (Φ) gives gives strength of relationship, while the ___ only gives statistical significance

A

A Phi coefficient (Φ) is similar to a chi square test, but unlike it, a Phi coefficient (Φ) gives gives strength of relationship, while the chi-square test only gives statistical significance

74
Q

A correlation does not tell you ___

A

Does NOT assess differences or agreement

75
Q

How can an extreme outlier affect the interpretation of a correlation?

A

Can create inflated correlation with only a few extreme data points

76
Q

Can a correlation data be generalized beyond the range of scores in the sample?

A

Can’t generalize beyond range of scores in sample

77
Q

Low correlation may be due to ___ range

A

Low correlation may be due to limited range

78
Q

What is reliability?

A

Extent to which a measurement is consistent and free from error

79
Q

What can a reliable measurement be expected to do?

A

A reliable measure can be expected to repeat the same score on two different occasions provided that the characteristic of interest does not change

80
Q

Reliability is closely tied to the concept of ___

A

Reliability is closely tied to the concept of measurement error

81
Q

What are the continuous data reliability coefficients?

A
  • Pearson correlation (r)

* Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) (best)

82
Q

What are the discrete/ categorical data reliability coefficients?

A
  • Percent agreement

* Kappa (best)

83
Q

What are the problems with using a Pearson correlation (r) to quantify reliability?

A
  1. Assesses relationship, not agreement

2. Only two raters or occasions could be compared

84
Q

Why do we prefer to use ICCs and Kappa for quantifying reliability?

A

Both ICCs and kappa give single indicators of reliability that capture strength of relationship plus agreement in a single value

85
Q

____ is stated in terms of variance

A

Reliability coefficients is stated in terms of variance

86
Q

What is the range of a reliability coefficient and what does it mean?

A

Range 0-1

0 = no reliability, 1 = perfect reliability

87
Q

The more error variability you have, the ____ reliability coefficient will be

A

The more error variability you have, the lower your reliability coefficient will be

88
Q

Reliability coefficient will be bigger, when ___ is larger

A

Reliability coefficient will be bigger, when true variance is larger

89
Q

What is the equation for the reliability/ correlation coefficient?

A

True score variability divided by true score variability plus error variability

90
Q

What does a high error variability do to correlation coefficient?

A

It will reduce it

91
Q

What will not having enough true score variability do to correlation coefficient?

A

It will reduce it

92
Q

What will happens to correlation coefficient with a large true variance?

A

It will be bigger

93
Q

What are the things that an ICC measures?

A

Measures degree of relationship (association) and

agreement simultaneously

94
Q

ICCs give ____ estimate of reliability (can compare different things)

A

ICCs give standardized estimate of reliability

95
Q

ICC is often reported in conjunction with ____

A

ICC is often reported in conjunction with * Standard error of the measurement (SEM)*

96
Q

ICC is designed for____ data but can be used with ___ data

A

ICC is designed for interval/ ratio data but can be used with ordinal data

97
Q

When can can ICC be used with ordinal data?

A

If intervals “assumed” to be equivalent

98
Q

SEM gives ____ estimate of reliability (i.e. in units

of measurement)

A

SEM gives “unstandardized” estimate of reliability (i.e. in units of measurement)

99
Q

The 6 types of ICC dependent on ….?

A
  • Purpose of study
  • Design of study
  • Type of measurements taken
100
Q

ICC type defined by ___

A

ICC type defined by two numbers in parentheses

101
Q

What does each number in the parenthesis of an ICC type mean?

A

The first number is the model and the second number is the form. (2, 6) 2 = model, 6 = form

102
Q

How many models of ICC are there?

A

3

103
Q

What is model 1 of an ICC?

A
  • Each subject measured by a different set of raters; raters “randomly” chosen
  • Rarely used in clinical research
104
Q

What is model 2 of an ICC?

A

• Each subject measured by same raters; raters “randomly” chosen & representative of rater population; results generalizable

105
Q

What is ICC model 2 commonly used for?

A

Most common for inter-rater reliability or test-retest reliability

106
Q

What is model 3 of an ICC?

A

• Each subject measured by same rater(s); raters are only ones of interest; results not generalizable

107
Q

What is ICC model 3 commonly used for?

A

Most common for intra-rater reliability

108
Q

Rank the models of ICC in order from most conservative to least conservative

A
  • Model 1 (most conservative, lowest number)
  • Model 2 (neutral)
  • Model 3 (least conservative, highest number)
109
Q

When can a model ICC be used for inter rater reliability?

A

Can be for inter-rater reliability if study raters only ones of interest

110
Q

What does the form/ 2nd number in parenthesis of an ICC represent?

A

Second number in parentheses represents number of observations used to obtain reliability estimate

111
Q

When is form = 1?

A

If only one observation per subject per rater (or rating)

112
Q

When is form a number more than 1?

A

If multiple observations averaged to get single number for analysis, form = number of observations averaged

113
Q

What ICC is best for clinical measures?

A

• ICC > 0.90

114
Q

What ICC has good reliability?

A

ICC > 0.75

115
Q

What ICC has poor to moderate reliability?

A

ICC < 0.75

116
Q

The interpretation of an ICC depends on ____

A

The interpretation of an ICC depends on intended use

117
Q

ICC estimate based on ____ will always be substantially higher than estimate based on ____

A

ICC estimate based on average measures will always be substantially higher
than estimate based on single measure

118
Q

What are the characteristics of reliability for categorical scales?

A
  • Based on frequency table
  • Agreements on on diagonal
  • Disagreements are all others
119
Q

What is percent agreement?

A

How often the raters agree

120
Q

How do you calculate percent agreement?

A

Divide number of agreements by total of all possible agreements

121
Q

What is the problem with a percent agreement?

A
  • Does not account for agreement due to chance

* Tends to overestimate reliability

122
Q

What is the kappa coefficient?

A

Proportion of agreement

between raters after chance agreement has been removed

123
Q

On what kind of data is a kappa coefficient used?

A

Can be used on both nominal and ordinal data

124
Q

What does a weighted kappa do?

A

Can choose to make “penalty” worse for larger disagreements

125
Q

What can the weight of a weighted kappa be?

A

Weights can be arbitrary, and

symmetric or asymmetric

126
Q

A weighted kappa is best for what kind of data?

A

Best for ordinal data

127
Q

The kappa interpretation depends on ____

A

The kappa interpretation depends on the weights used

128
Q

What does a kappa value of <0.4 mean?

A

Poor to Fair agreement beyond chance

129
Q

What does a kappa value of 0.4–0.6 mean?

A

Moderate agreement beyond chance

130
Q

What does a kappa value of 0.6–0.8 mean?

A

Substantial agreement beyond chance

131
Q

What does a kappa value of 0.8–1.0 mean?

A

Excellent agreement beyond chance

132
Q

Internal consistency is often used to do what?

A

Often used to construct and evaluate scale / questionnaires

133
Q

What does internal consistency estimate?

A

Estimate how well the items that reflect the same construct yield similar results. So, do different questions measure same concept or indicator?

134
Q

What does cronbach’s alpha (a) do?

A

Represents correlation among items and correlation of each individual item with the total score

135
Q

What is recommended that cronbach’s alpha be between?

A

Recommended that cronbach’s alpha be between 0.70 to 0.90

136
Q

Cronbach’s alpha can have ___ or ____ on test/questionnaire

A

Cronbach’s alpha can have dichotomous or multiple-choice responses on test/questionnaire

137
Q

What can cronbach’s alpha (a) help eliminate?

A

Can help eliminate items from test/questionnaire that are not homogenous to the set or are not contributing unique information

138
Q

What is response stability?

A

A way to quantify stability of repeated measures over time

139
Q

Response stability is basically the same as ___

A

Response stability is basically the same as test-retest reliability

140
Q

What are the different ways to test response stability?

A
  • SEM: standard error of the measurement
  • MDC: minimal detectable difference/change
  • CV: coefficient of variation
141
Q

Standard error of measurement is a ___ measure of reliability, while ICC and kappa is a ____ measure of reliability

A

Standard error of measurement is a absolute measure of reliability, while ICC and kappa is a relative measure of reliability

142
Q

SEM is in units of _____

A

SEM is in units of measurement as variable

143
Q

What is SEM theoretically?

A

Standard deviation of the distribution of theoretical multiple measurements

144
Q

An SEM can be used to create a ____

A

An SEM can be used to create a 95% CI around a measurement

145
Q

What is the MDC?

A

Amount of change in a variable that must be achieved to reflect a true change/difference

146
Q

___ is a mathematical multiple of SEM

A

MDC is a mathematical multiple of SEM

147
Q

What is the coefficient of variation (CV)?

A

A standardized way to measure variability. (SD divided by the mean times 100)

148
Q

What is the coefficient of variation helpful in comparing and why?

A

Unit-less, so is helpful comparing variability between two distributions on different scales

149
Q

What is an alternate form reliability?

A

Comparing different methods of testing same phenomenon with different instruments (goniometer vs inclinometer)

150
Q

What analysis or agreement is seen with an alternate form reliability?

A
  • Limit of agreement

- Bland- altman analysis

151
Q

What is a bland- altman plot?

A

When you plot the mean of two measures on the x- axis and the difference between the 2 measures on the y- axis, and the center of the plots is a bias

152
Q

What does a tighter range on the bland altman plot mean?

A

There is more agreement between the two measures

153
Q

When is there no bias on a bland altman plot?

A

When the line of bias is at 0

154
Q

When is there a consistent bias on a bland altman plot?

A

When the points on the plot are on one side of the bias line

155
Q

When is there an asymmetrical bias on a bland altman plot?

A

When the points are split between the two sides of the bias line

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