week 6

Question 1

What are video games?

Answer 1

All play takes place within a magic circle: a temporary world within the ordinary world, dedicated to the performace of an act, within special rules apply. Play within the circle is secluded from the real world.

Games are structured form of play with quantifiable win and loss conditions.

Question 2

First study on violet video games

Answer 2

Compared aggressive responses after playing a violet game or a non-violet game
No significant differences on three measures of aggression.

Question 3

Why men play more games?

Answer 3

• Evolutionary psychology: men like killing, women more daily games as Sims
• Skills and abilities: better eye-hand coordination, navigation and orientation
• Socialization theories: peers, gender, cultural
• Identification: lower percentage of female characters in games, identification is higher in men
• Sexualization: sexualized female characters
  Effects: can influence perceptions of real-world gender roles, players reportet lower cognitive capabilities od women in general.
  In general: it’s long term effect and for only specific genres of games.
• Game designers are almost male, making games for males.

Question 4

Selection of video games

Answer 4

• Escapism: finding empowerment that men lacking in real world
• Self-determination theory: people are intrisically motivated to select entertainment that meets inherent human needs.

Intrinsic needs involved in self-determination:

Competence: seek to control the outcome and experience mastery, can fulful emotional needs that are unique to this medium: pride, dominance, accomplishment.
When: unclear and uncertain, school leads to feelings od incompetence.

Autonomy: desire to be causal agents of one’s own life
When: force them where to be, what to do, what to know, what to become.

Relatedness: desire to interact and experience a connection with others.
When: online contact is easier because of cue management, especially for those who are socially anxious.

Question 5

MDA model

Answer 5

Mechanics: the actions a player can perform, the effects of these actions on the game world
Dynamics: the interaction between player and mechanics, combination of dynamics provides the gameplay
Affect: the emotional reaction that emerges from the gameplay, Competence – autonomy – relatedness.

Question 6

Organic learning

Answer 6

Follows the technique: Kishotenketsu
Ki: topic introduction
Sho: follows the introduction
Ten: Twist or new topic
Ketsu: brings story to its conclusion

Question 7

Intransitive Relations

Answer 7

Allows for interesting choices and strategy since there is no predetermined winning option. Whenever a relation holds between one object and a second and also between that second and a third, the relation fails to hold between the first and the third.

Transitivity can also be countered by asymmetrical balance.

• With asymmetrical balance, the relations are still transitive in one aspect, but reversed in another aspect.
• Asymmetrical balance and intransitivity allow for powerful game experiences because they provide multiple viable strategies (preferably supporting a variety of playstyles and strategies).

Question 8

Feedback loops

Answer 8

Positive feedback loop
Enlarges the difference between players (snowballing)
Makes it harder for loser to recover

Negative feedback loop
Reduces the difference between players (catch-up, rubber banding)
Encourages loser recovery

Dynamic feedback loop
Automatically adjusts the difficulty to the skills of the player

Question 9

Pacing

Answer 9

the speed at which events occur. First progress quickly to build up your investment perception, and once you are invested, it starts to get harder and takes longer to achieve rewards.

Question 10

Endowed progress

Answer 10

when people receive a feeling of advancement towards a distant goal, they’re more likely to try harder and try longer to reach that goal, relative to people who have an equally easy goal but who had no sense of momentrum of the start.

Question 11

Game flow

Answer 11

Mental state of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involment and enjoyment.
In order to experience flow, the perceived difficulty of a challenge is constantly adjusted to the player.
Increasing difficulty caused a stronger flow experience than lowering or continuous difficulty. experienced stronger when both skill and difficulty are high.

Question 12

The zeigarnik effect

Answer 12

tendency to experience intrusive thoughts about an objective that was once pursued and left incomplete. We experience dissonanse.

Question 13

Sunk costs fallacy

Answer 13

escalating commitment by citing prior investments as justification for future ones, even tho these costs are gone, immutable and completely out of picture. The more you invest in game, the less likely you are to quit.

Question 14

Responses to games

Answer 14

Emotional: playing helps kids discover proper human interaction and control their emotions.
Cognitive & psycological: frequent gamers showed better skills at visual perception

Question 15

Forbidden Fruit Theory

Answer 15

Children feel attracted to inappropriate media simply
because it is considered inappropriate for them. Children feel a stronger attraction to
trying something due to the fact that it is forbidden.

Similarly, Tainted fruit theory posits that lower age rating labels will decrease interest
because it makes the violent content seem tame.

Question 16

Theories for Effects of Violent Games

Answer 16

Desensitization
* Repeated exposure to the pain and suffering of other people in violent games will
desensitize you, causing you to feel less empathy for the victims of real-world
violence, and making you possibly more likely to inflict harm upon them (Engelhardt
et al., 2011).

Schema theory
* Aggressive behavior comes from the knowledge structures (schema) that you have
learned through repeated exposure to violent entertainment (Huesmann, 1986)
* If you learn that violence is the (only) solution to conflicts, you are more likely to
interpret real-world situations as aggressive, and more likely to respond violently
when confronted with a conflict.

Question 17

Dopamine monopoly

Answer 17

necessary but not sufficient
* Dopamine is released while playing a video game. Higher volumes of dopamine are associated with more frequent video game playing.
* Excessive gaming before age of 22 can physically alter dopamine pathways in the
brain
* Game addiction is associated with dopaminergic deficiency which makes such
individuals vulnerable to relapse.
* Only the persistent release of dopamine is not enough for addiction to persist. The
behavior should salve psychological troubles. Addiction occurs when our brain learns
that the behavior is critical to our emotional stability.

Question 18

Comorbidity

Answer 18

Comorbidity is the presence of a disorder co-occuring with a primary disease or
disorder. The additional disorder may be a behavioral or mental disorder.
Comorbidity is more often the rule than the exception among game addicts.
Clinically, in some patients, gaming excessively can be a way of coping with a
comorbid condition, which may progress into Gaming Disorder.

Question 19

Money from free games

Answer 19

Advertising

Microtransactions: exchange real money to virtual currency. <- most popular monetization technique.

Question 20

The Value of Virtual Currencies

Answer 20

• By turning real money into a virtual representation of money, the
  psychological value of money is lowered, which makes it easier to spend
• Suspension of Judgement is a structural characteristic of gambling that
  temporarily disrupts the gambler’s financial value system and potentially
  stimulates further gambling
• Artificial Scarcity: Products that are limited in supply or hard to get will
  be more attractive than products that appear abundant

Question 21

Popular Microtransactions

Answer 21

Competition. Any in-game item that boost the performance of a player, giving them an
advantage over other players. These goods can enhance the player’s in-game skill by
making the player stronger or providing some other advantage, thus making the player
more efficient in the game.

Benign Envy
If a goal achieved by others seems relatively easy, feelings of benign envy will
motivate us to do what we can to close the gap with our competitors.

Question 22

Social comperision theory:

Answer 22

The Frog-pond effect describes how individuals evaluate themselves based on comparisons to other people around them. Individuals evaluate themselves as worse when in a group of many higher performing individuals.
Freemium games find ways to cut the data to place players near the top of a
group - for boosting the self-esteem and increasing the incentive of players.

Post-purchase Reinforcement
Information provided post-purchase by a manufacturer that presents favorable aspects
of the product and reassures the buyer that a wise purchase decision has been made.

Activision has a patent on post-purchase reinforcement through multiplayer matchmaking.

For example, if the player purchased (or won) a particular weapon, the microtransaction algorithm can assign the player to a match with an opponent in which that particular weapon is highly effective, giving the player the impression that this particular weapon was a good purchase.

Self-presentation: custumization

Some virtual goods are solely used for customization goals as they give the
player’s character no in-game advantages. These so-called skins are solely
decorative as they contain no functionality that affects game performance
whatsoever.
Customization; personalizing characters or gameplay is an important category
within micro-transactions of virtual goods.

Unobstructed play: Allowing players to smoothly continue playing without
obstructions or distractions.
Many games set artificial timers as to make the player wait. For example, build
a building into the player’s village, or prevent players from continuing the game
sessions. Players can pay to complete this process immediately.

Question 23

Preventing Satiation

Answer 23

• When we experience nice new things (great song, good food, exciting tv show) we
  want to binge on it. Satiation (also referred to as Hedonic adaptation) refers to the
  fact that we get used to nice things over time until they are no longer anywhere near
  as pleasurable (Nelson & Meyvis, 2009).
• While most players are used to the option of binging on a game until they burn out
  and move on, most Freemium games force players to avoid that behavior (using
  timers) (Hamari et al., 2016)

This forced abstinence either enhances the long-term appeal of the game or entices
players to microtransactions to skip the ‘downtime’

Question 24

Operant conditioning

Answer 24

Dopamine is not about pleasure; it is about the
anticipation of pleasure. It is about the pursuit of
happiness rather than happiness itself.

The most effective monetisation technique: A loot box
is a consumable virtual item which can be redeemed to receive a randomized selection of virtual items, ranging from simple customization options for a player’s character, to game-changing equipment such as weapons and armor.

Question 25

Pleasure Paradox

Answer 25

Although uncertainty is usually seen as an undesirable state that should be
reduced, once we understand things we tend to find them kind of boring and
predictable.

Question 26

Online Gambling

Answer 26

• People search for control that allows for mastery and predictive power over
  their environment (Reid, 1986)
• Gamblers often experience an expectancy of personal success inappropriately
  higher than objective probability would warrant (Langer, 1975).
• Increased sense of control if they handled the dice
• Harder throws for higher numbers, soft for lower numbers
• Coin Flip – perception of skill after ‘winning’
• Near misses serve to maintain persistent gambling (Dixon & Schrieber, 2004)

Question 27

Intransitive Relations

Answer 27

Whenever a relation holds between one object and a second, and also
between that second and a third, the relation fails to hold between the first and the third

• Transitivity (boring) can also be countered by asymmetrical balance
• With asymmetrical balance, the relations are transitive in one relevant aspect,
  but reversed in another relevant aspect.
• Both asymmetrical balance and intransitivity enhance autonomy because
  they provide multiple viable strategies or support a variety of playstyles.

Question 28

Unobstructed play

Answer 28

Allowing players to smoothly continue playing without
obstructions or distractions.
* Many F2P games set artificial timers as to make the player wait. Players can pay
to skip this ‘downtime’ with microtransactions.

If a goal achieved by others seems relatively easy, feelings of benign envy will
motivate us to do what we can to close the gap with our competitors or rivals.

Question 29

Pay to win

Answer 29

Any in-game purchase that boost the performance of a player, giving
them an advantage. These performance-boosting items can enhance a player’s in-
game performance by making the player stronger or providing some other
advantage, thus making the player more efficient in the game.

Question 30

Gaming Disorder

Answer 30

Characterized by patterns of persistent or recurrent gaming behaviour:

1) Impaired control over gaming (e.g., onset, frequency, intensity,
duration, termination, context)
2) Increasing priority given to gaming to the extent that gaming
takes precedence over other life interests and daily activities
3) Continuation or escalation of gaming despite negative
consequences.

Question 31

Need Frustration among Adolescents

Answer 31

Competence
Real success is a long, unclear and uncertain process. School provides the
opposite of competence for some.
Autonomy
Hardly any freedom of choice. Parents and teachers decide where they need
to be, what to do, and what to learn.
Connectedness
For some it is much easier to make contact online, because of the possibilities
to control information.

Question 32

A loot box

Answer 32

is a collective name for different types of packs, chests, or boxes, containing a selection of random items (i.e., loot) that may enhance the gameplay experience.
* The essence of loot boxes is that users generally do not know its contents prior to purchasing and opening them
* Loot boxes, through intermittent reinforcement schedules, provide rewards at irregular intervals that promote repeated behavior

Question 33

Operant Conditioning

Answer 33

Independent discharges of dopamine neurons determine the motivation to respond to cues.
* Continuous discharges of dopamine-containing neurons are necessary to establish long-
term memories that associate predictive stimuli with rewards (Wise & Robble, 2020).

Question 34

Intermittent Reinforcement

Answer 34

• Random rewards (aka: Variable reward schedule, Intermittent reinforcement) urge
  players to repeat the behavior in order to find the the pattern and predict future success.
• The desire to find a pattern is called Apophenia, our brain wants to determine the
  system that predicts happiness even when there is none because of randomness.
• Dopamine is not about pleasure; it is about the anticipation of pleasure. It is about the
  pursuit of happiness rather than happiness itself (Sapolsky, 2005).
• Pleasure Paradox: Although uncertainty is usually seen as an undesirable state that
  should be reduced, once we understand things we tend to find them kind of boring and
  predictable (Wilson, et al., 2005). Surprises are fun, attention grabbing and exciting
  precisely because they defy our expectations.

Question 35

Obsession - consumption

Answer 35

As a result of behavioral addiction, the dopamine receptors in the brain decrease, reducing
interest in other activities (Wise & Robble, 2020).

• Loot boxes have emerged as one of the most effective and profitable forms of enticing
  players to spend (more) money on games (Zendle et al., 2019).
• The mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of loot boxes are similar, if not identical, to
  the mechanisms that make gambling potentially addictive (King & Delfabbro, 2020).
• Gamers that score higher on gaming disorder spend more on loot boxes (Lemmens, 2022)

Question 36

Loot Box Regulation

Answer 36

• The European Gaming Commission does not classify loot boxes as gambling
  because the items obtained from them cannot be exchanged for real money.
• In Belgium, selling loot boxes is prohibited: FC24 and Overwatch have removed
  the option to purchase loot boxes (for real money).
• In China it is mandatory to provide information about the (small) chance of
  receiving special items from loot boxes.

Sunk Costs Fallacy: Escalating commitment by citing prior investments as
justification for future ones, even though those costs are gone, immutable, and
completely out of the picture

Question 37

Try to notice how they can satisfy the three psychological needs as described in the self-determination theory. Refer to the article by Przybylski et al., (2010) and check the examples that are described there. What are the game mechanics and design elements that contribute to each of the three needs described in the Self Determination Theory?

Answer 37

Candy Crush Saga
Autonomy: Candy Crush Saga offers players a sense of autonomy by allowing them to choose when and how long they want to play. Players can progress through levels at their own pace and have the freedom to strategize and make decisions about which candies to match.
Competence: The game provides a gradual increase in difficulty, starting with easier levels and progressively introducing more challenging obstacles. As players successfully complete levels, they gain a sense of accomplishment and mastery.
Relatedness: Although Candy Crush Saga is primarily a single-player game, it incorporates social elements such as leaderboards and the option to connect to Facebook. Players can compare their progress with friends, compete against them, and even request lives or help when stuck on a level, fostering a sense of community

Clash Royale
Autonomy: Clash Royale offers players autonomy by allowing them to build and customize their own decks of cards, choose their strategies, and decide when to deploy troops during matches. Players have control over their gameplay experience and can experiment with different tactics.
Competence: The game provides opportunities for players to demonstrate skill and mastery through strategic decision-making, card selection, and real-time gameplay. Success in Clash Royale requires not only knowledge of the game mechanics but also quick thinking and adaptability.
Relatedness: Clash Royale incorporates social features such as joining clans, participating in clan wars, and chatting with clanmates. Players can collaborate with others, share strategies, and compete together, fostering a sense of belonging and social connection

Question 38

Pay special attention to the monetization techniques used in these games. Refer to Lecture session 6.6: Mobile Games and Monetization as well as to the article by Lemmens (2022).

Answer 38

Monetization Techniques:

Candy Crush Saga:
In-app purchases: Players can purchase boosters, extra lives, or additional moves to help them progress through levels faster or overcome difficult obstacles.
Limited lives: The game employs a lives system where players have a limited number of attempts to complete levels. Once they run out of lives, they either have to wait for them to regenerate or purchase more lives with real money.
Advertisements: Candy Crush Saga includes ads that players can watch to earn in-game rewards such as boosters or extra lives.

Clash Royale:
In-app purchases: Players can purchase gems, which can be used to buy chests, unlock chests faster, or acquire gold and cards. Gems can also be used to enter challenges or tournaments.
Chest unlocking timers: After winning matches, players receive chests containing rewards such as cards and gold. However, these chests have timers that require either waiting a certain amount of time or spending gems to unlock them instantly.
Special offers: The game frequently offers special deals and promotions where players can purchase bundles of gems, cards, or other items at discounted prices.