Week 5, Thursday: Asia, America and Australia in the long nineteenth century (1800- 1917) Flashcards
India
1. How was India ruled before the Great Mutiny? What is the Great Mutiny? What were its
causes? How did this affect British rule?
Mention a few socioeconomic and political effects of British rule. Was British rule in
India, on balance, a force for good?
Nation-building: China and Japan compared
India Before the Great Mutiny
Rule Before the Great Mutiny:
India was primarily governed by the British East India Company, which exerted control through local rulers.
The Great Mutiny
What is the Great Mutiny?
The Great Mutiny (1857), also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, was an uprising against British rule.
Causes:
Cultural Insensitivity: Use of cow and pig fat in rifle cartridges offended Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
Economic Exploitation: Heavy taxation and land reforms created discontent.
Political Discontent: The annexation of princely states fueled resentment.
Effects on British Rule
Impact:
The mutiny led to the dissolution of the East India Company and the establishment of direct British rule, initiating military and administrative reforms.
Socioeconomic and Political Effects of British Rule
Socioeconomic:
Infrastructure development (railways, roads) alongside economic exploitation.
Political:
Legal reforms introduced a Western-style legal system and sparked nationalist movements.
Assessment of British Rule
Was British Rule a Force for Good?
Proponents: Cite infrastructure improvements and educational advancements.
Critics: Highlight exploitation and cultural erasure.
Nation-Building: China and Japan Compared
China:
Struggled with reforms and faced foreign pressures, leading to the 1911 Revolution.
Japan:
Embraced modernization through the Meiji Restoration (1868), becoming a competitive imperial power.
Comparison:
Japan’s proactive modernization contrasts with China’s reactive approach, leading to Japan’s successful transformation and China’s prolonged turmoil.
- Discuss causes, course and consequences of the Opium war. Do the same for the
Taiping rebellion.
Opium War
Causes:
Opium Trade: The British traded opium from India to China, leading to widespread addiction and social issues.
Trade Imbalance: Britain faced a trade deficit with China due to high demand for Chinese goods like tea and silk.
Chinese Restrictions: The Qing Dynasty implemented strict regulations on foreign trade, angering the British.
Course:
First Opium War (1839-1842): Sparked by the Chinese crackdown on opium trade, resulting in naval conflicts.
Treaty of Nanjing (1842): Ended the war, favoring Britain and ceding Hong Kong, opening ports, and establishing reparations.
Consequences:
Unequal Treaties: China was forced to sign several treaties that undermined its sovereignty and economic control.
Economic Disruption: The influx of foreign goods disrupted local industries and exacerbated social unrest.
Beginning of Foreign Influence: Increased Western influence in China, leading to further conflicts and reforms.
Taiping Rebellion
Causes:
Social Discontent: Widespread poverty, famine, and corruption in the Qing Dynasty led to public dissatisfaction.
Religious Influence: Hong Xiuquan, claiming to be the brother of Jesus, sought to establish a Christian kingdom, rallying followers.
Weak Qing Government: The inability to effectively govern and respond to crises fueled revolutionary sentiments.
Course:
Rebellion (1850-1864): The Taiping forces captured significant territories in southern China, establishing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.
Conflict: The Qing Dynasty, aided by regional armies and foreign powers, launched brutal campaigns to suppress the rebellion.
Consequences:
Massive Casualties: Estimates of deaths range from 20 to 30 million, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in history.
Weakening of the Qing Dynasty: The rebellion severely weakened the Qing government and exposed its vulnerabilities.
Reforms and Modernization: Prompted some reforms, leading to a reassessment of governance and modernization efforts in China.
- How did China respond to the Western challenge? Pay attention to the SelfStrengthening movement, the response of the Manchu dynasty to the defeat against
Japan in 1894 / 1895, the Boxer rebellion and the 1911 revolution.
China’s Response to the Western Challenge
Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895):
Objective: Aimed to modernize China’s military and economy by adopting Western technology while preserving Confucian values.
Initiatives: Established arsenals, shipyards, and schools for technical training. Key figures included Li Hongzhang and Zeng Guofan.
Limitations: The movement lacked coherent support from the Qing court and failed to address underlying social and political issues, leading to limited success.
Response to Defeat against Japan (First Sino-Japanese War, 1894-1895):
Shock of Defeat: The Qing Dynasty’s loss to Japan highlighted its inability to compete with Western powers and prompted calls for reform.
Hundred Days’ Reform (1898): A series of ambitious reforms intended to modernize China’s political, educational, and military systems. However, the movement faced strong opposition from conservative factions within the Qing court, leading to its swift suppression.
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901):
Background: Fueled by anti-foreign and anti-Christian sentiments, the Boxers (Yihequan) sought to expel foreign influence and restore Qing authority.
Conflict: The uprising led to violent attacks against foreigners and Chinese Christians, prompting an eight-nation alliance to intervene militarily.
Consequences: The Qing government was forced to sign the Boxer Protocol (1901), which imposed severe penalties, including reparations, foreign troops stationed in Beijing, and further erosion of sovereignty.
1911 Revolution:
Triggering Factors: Discontent with the Qing dynasty due to failure in reform, military defeats, and rising nationalism.
Outcome: The revolution led to the abdication of the last Qing emperor, ending over two thousand years of imperial rule and establishing the Republic of China.
Significance: Marked a significant shift towards modernization and the beginning of nationalist movements, ultimately paving the way for further political changes in the 20th century.
- The Meiji restoration in Japan is often called “one of history’s most remarkable
chapters.” Describe the rapid transformation of Japan. Pay attention to the political,
military, economic, social and cultural aspects.
Rapid Transformation of Japan During the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912)
1. Political Changes:
End of Feudalism: The Meiji Restoration marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, transitioning power back to the emperor, with Emperor Meiji as a central figure.
Centralized Government: Establishment of a modern, centralized bureaucratic government, which replaced the feudal system and enabled efficient governance.
Constitutional Development: The Meiji Constitution of 1889 introduced a parliamentary system, though the emperor retained significant power, marking Japan’s transition towards a constitutional monarchy.
2. Military Reforms:
Modernization of Armed Forces: The military was restructured with Western technology and training. Conscription was implemented in 1873, ensuring a steady supply of soldiers.
Naval Expansion: Significant investments were made in the navy, leading to Japan emerging as a formidable naval power, exemplified by victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
3. Economic Development:
Industrialization: Rapid industrial growth occurred through the establishment of factories, railroads, and communication networks. The government played a crucial role in fostering industries.
Zaibatsu Formation: Powerful conglomerates (zaibatsu) emerged, dominating sectors such as banking, shipping, and manufacturing, driving Japan’s economy forward.
Infrastructure Improvements: Expansion of railroads, telegraph lines, and ports facilitated commerce and contributed to economic integration.
4. Social Changes:
Education System: The government established a universal education system, promoting literacy and technical skills, crucial for modernization.
Class Structure Shift: The abolition of the samurai class led to a new social order, with the emergence of a bourgeoisie and increased mobility within the workforce.
Women’s Roles: Though traditional roles persisted, the period saw a gradual increase in women’s education and involvement in social reform movements.
5. Cultural Aspects:
Cultural Exchange: Japan embraced Western ideas and practices while striving to retain its cultural identity, leading to a unique blend of Eastern and Western influences in art, literature, and architecture.
Shinto and Nationalism: The Meiji state promoted Shinto as a national religion, intertwining nationalism with traditional beliefs to strengthen loyalty to the emperor and state.
Modernization of Arts: The introduction of Western art styles influenced Japanese painting, literature, and theater, creating a vibrant cultural landscape.
- What were the causes of the Meiji restoration?
Causes of the Meiji Restoration
Internal Weakness of the Tokugawa Shogunate:
Political Instability: The Tokugawa shogunate faced growing discontent due to corruption, inefficient governance, and a rigid social hierarchy, leading to a loss of legitimacy.
Economic Strain: Widespread famine, economic stagnation, and rising taxes caused hardship among the peasantry, fueling social unrest.
Western Pressure:
Commodore Perry’s Expedition (1853-1854): The arrival of American naval forces, demanding the opening of Japan to trade, highlighted Japan’s vulnerability and the need for modernization.
Unequal Treaties: Subsequent treaties with Western powers imposed unfavorable conditions, fostering resentment toward the shogunate for its inability to protect national sovereignty.
Nationalism and the Desire for Modernization:
Rise of Nationalist Sentiments: Intellectual movements advocating for a return to imperial rule gained traction, emphasizing national unity and pride.
Desire to Compete with the West: Influential figures believed that modernization was essential for Japan to avoid colonization and to become a respected global power.
Influence of Sonno Joi Movement:
“Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians”: This slogan encapsulated the desire to restore imperial authority and resist foreign influence, leading to a coalition of pro-imperial factions.
Role of Key Leaders:
Leadership of Reformers: Key figures such as Saigo Takamori and Kido Takayoshi played pivotal roles in organizing resistance against the shogunate and promoting the restoration of imperial rule.
Bourgeois Influence:
Emerging Middle Class: A growing bourgeoisie, influenced by Western ideas, sought political power and reforms, supporting the movement toward modernization and imperial rule.
Military Developments:
Samurai Discontent: The samurai class, feeling threatened by the decline of their status and privileges, joined forces with the reformists to restore imperial rule, leading to the Boshin War (1868-1869) against the shogunate.
- We can conclude that in the period under review Japan was quite successful in meeting
the Western challenge and China was not. Explain why Japan’s modernization was a
success why China in the nineteenth century remained what we to-day would call a failed
state.
The Americas
Reasons for Japan’s Successful Modernization vs. China’s Struggles in the 19th Century
Political Will and Unity:
Japan: The Meiji Restoration (1868) unified the country under imperial rule, enabling cohesive governance and a clear vision for modernization. The leaders were committed to reforming the political and social systems, fostering national unity.
China: The Qing Dynasty struggled with internal strife, corruption, and resistance to reform, leading to a lack of cohesive governance. Factionalism and regionalism weakened central authority.
Strategic Adaptation:
Japan: Japan selectively adopted Western technologies and systems while retaining cultural identity. The government actively promoted industrialization, military modernization, and education, allowing for rapid advancements.
China: Efforts like the Self-Strengthening Movement were inconsistent and often met with resistance from traditionalists. The reluctance to fully embrace Western practices hampered effective reform.
Military Reform:
Japan: Japan successfully modernized its military, adopting Western military techniques and technology. The strength of the Imperial Japanese Army allowed Japan to assert itself on the global stage, exemplified by victories in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895).
China: China faced military defeats, notably against Japan and Western powers, revealing the inadequacies of its military structure. The failure to modernize the military contributed to national humiliation and loss of sovereignty.
Economic Policies:
Japan: The government fostered industrialization through state support, infrastructure development, and investment in key industries. This led to economic growth and the establishment of a modern economy.
China: Economic stagnation persisted due to lack of investment, corruption, and ineffective reforms. The Qing government struggled to respond to rising demands for change, leading to widespread unrest.
Social Reforms:
Japan: The Meiji leaders promoted educational reforms, leading to a literate and skilled workforce that could drive modernization efforts. They established a national conscription system, integrating the populace into the modern state.
China: Education remained limited, and the traditional examination system persisted, which did not equip the population to address modern challenges. Social upheaval, such as the Taiping Rebellion, undermined stability.
Cultural Factors:
Japan: Japanese nationalism and pride in cultural heritage supported modernization efforts, as leaders framed reforms as a way to strengthen the nation.
China: Confucian ideals clashed with modernizing forces, leading to resistance against reforms. Cultural conservatism hindered adaptation to new realities.
- In what ways did the United States come to resemble European powers in building an
overseas empire? Pay attention to: the Monroe doctrine, the Roosevelt corollary to the
Monroe doctrine, (p. 810) the Spanish American War.
How did the US acquire the Panama Canal Zone?
The United States and Its Overseas Empire
Monroe Doctrine (1823):
Established a policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas, asserting that any intervention in the Western Hemisphere would be viewed as a threat to U.S. interests.
This doctrine signified a shift towards an imperialistic approach, framing U.S. involvement in Latin America as protective rather than aggressive, akin to European powers’ justifications for empire.
Roosevelt Corollary (1904):
An extension of the Monroe Doctrine, asserting the right of the U.S. to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability and order.
This corollary was used to justify American interventions in the Caribbean and Central America, positioning the U.S. as a regional police force, similar to European powers managing their colonies.
Spanish-American War (1898):
Resulted in the U.S. acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, marking a significant expansion of American influence overseas.
The war was fueled by desires to support Cuban independence and assert U.S. power globally, echoing imperialist motivations seen in European conflicts.
Acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone:
The U.S. supported a revolution in Panama against Colombia in 1903 to facilitate the construction of the canal, demonstrating a willingness to use military and political influence for strategic interests.
The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty allowed the U.S. to control the canal zone, solidifying its role as a dominant power in Central America and enhancing its strategic and economic interests.
