Week 1, French revolution and Haitian revolution (revolutions as a whole) Flashcards
What was the national assembly in the french revolution?
The National Assembly was a revolutionary body formed in June 1789 during the early stages of the French Revolution. It was created by representatives of the Third Estate (commoners), who were frustrated by the unequal voting system that favored the clergy (First Estate) and nobility (Second Estate). The National Assembly aimed to represent the French people and push for reforms, including a new constitution. It played a key role in the early revolution, leading to the end of absolute monarchy and the creation of a constitutional monarchy.
what was the Reign of Terror in the french revolution?
The Reign of Terror was a period during the French Revolution, from September 1793 to July 1794, characterized by extreme political violence and mass executions. Led by the radical Jacobins, particularly Maximilien Robespierre, the government sought to eliminate “enemies of the revolution” through harsh measures. The Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee of Public Safety oversaw the trials and executions, often by guillotine, with around 16,000 people officially executed, including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. The Reign of Terror ended when Robespierre was arrested and executed in July 1794.
- Discuss the origins of the French Revolution. How important was social change? Also
deal with: the influence of the Enlightenment, of the American Revolution, of war and
financial crisis.
Why was the king unable to restore order in 1789?
The French Revolution had multiple origins, with social change playing a significant role. France was divided into three estates: the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The Third Estate (commoners), which made up the vast majority, faced heavy taxation, poverty, and little political power, leading to growing unrest. Social inequality combined with rising prices and food shortages intensified dissatisfaction.
The Enlightenment influenced the revolution by promoting ideas of individual rights, equality, and challenging the divine right of kings. Philosophers like Rousseau and Voltaire criticized the monarchy and social hierarchy, spreading revolutionary ideas. The success of the American Revolution (1776) also inspired French revolutionaries by proving that a people could overthrow a monarchy and establish a republic.
War and financial crisis worsened the situation. France’s involvement in the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolution plunged the country into debt. King Louis XVI’s government was bankrupt by the late 1780s, and attempts to reform taxation failed due to opposition from the privileged estates.
In 1789, King Louis XVI was unable to restore order because he lacked the authority to impose reforms and relied on outdated, absolutist methods. His failure to manage economic and political crises, along with indecisiveness and resistance to change from the nobility, led to widespread discontent. The summoning of the Estates-General in May 1789 further exposed the king’s weakness, as it allowed the Third Estate to organize into the National Assembly, marking the collapse of royal authority.
- Discuss the major reforms introduced during the first (1789-1792) so-called liberal
revolution in France.
During the first phase of the French Revolution (1789–1792), often called the “liberal revolution,” several major reforms were introduced, aiming to transform France from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional one with greater equality and individual rights.
Abolition of Feudal Privileges: In August 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudal privileges, ending the tax exemptions and special rights of the clergy and nobility. This reform leveled the social and economic playing field.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789): This foundational document proclaimed the equality of all men before the law, the right to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, and the principles of popular sovereignty.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790): This law brought the Catholic Church under state control, requiring clergy to swear loyalty to the state, and confiscated church lands to help resolve the financial crisis. This caused deep divisions, especially among religious citizens.
Constitution of 1791: The first French constitution created a constitutional monarchy, limiting the king’s power and establishing a legislative assembly elected by property-owning citizens. It aimed to balance royal authority with popular representation.
Judicial and Administrative Reforms: The justice system was reformed, introducing elected judges and jury trials. Local governance was also reorganized into new administrative divisions, called departments, to simplify and centralize administration.
- What were the four major reforms of the ‘most radical period of the revolution’?
The “most radical period of the French Revolution,” often identified as the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), was marked by several significant reforms aimed at reshaping French society and securing the revolution. Here are four major reforms:
Abolition of Monarchy and Establishment of the Republic: In 1792, the monarchy was abolished, and France was declared a republic. King Louis XVI was put on trial for treason and executed by guillotine in January 1793, marking the complete break from royal authority.
Introduction of the Revolutionary Calendar: To symbolize the break from the old regime, the French Republic introduced a new calendar in 1793, replacing the Gregorian calendar. The new calendar had 10-day weeks and months named after seasonal characteristics, reflecting revolutionary ideals and the rejection of religious influences.
Reign of Terror and Law of Suspects: The Law of Suspects, passed in 1793, allowed for the arrest and execution of anyone suspected of being an enemy of the revolution. This was part of the broader Reign of Terror led by the Committee of Public Safety, where thousands were executed, including nobles, clergy, and perceived counter-revolutionaries.
Social and Economic Reforms (Law of the Maximum): To address food shortages and inflation, the revolutionary government introduced the Law of the Maximum, which set price controls on essential goods such as bread and grain. This aimed to make basic necessities affordable for the poor but also created tensions with producers and merchants.
. What is meant with the ‘Thermidorean reaction’?
The Thermidorean Reaction refers to the period following the fall of Robespierre on July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor in the revolutionary calendar), which marked the end of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. This reaction saw the dismantling of the radical policies and institutions that had characterized the most extreme phase of the revolution.
Key aspects of the Thermidorean Reaction include:
Execution of Robespierre and his followers: Robespierre, the leading figure of the Reign of Terror, was arrested and executed, along with many of his supporters.
End of the Reign of Terror: The mass executions, harsh repression, and extreme policies of the radical Jacobins were halted. The Committee of Public Safety lost much of its power.
Moderation of Revolutionary Policies: More moderate factions took control, including the Thermidorians, who sought to restore stability. They rolled back radical economic controls (like the Law of the Maximum) and curbed the influence of the radical sans-culottes.
Shift Toward Conservatism: The government became more conservative, restoring some traditional practices, and focusing on order and property rights.
- What was revolutionary about the age of revolution? How did the states that emerged
out of the eighteenth-century revolutions differ from the states that predominated in
previous centuries?
The Age of Revolution (late 18th to early 19th centuries) was revolutionary because it fundamentally transformed political systems, social structures, and ideologies across the world, particularly in Europe and the Americas. Key events, such as the American Revolution (1776), the French Revolution (1789), and later the Latin American revolutions, introduced new concepts of governance and rights.
The revolutionary aspects included:
Popular Sovereignty: Power shifted from monarchies to the people. Governments were now based on the consent of the governed, with concepts of democracy and republicanism replacing absolute rule.
Individual Rights and Liberty: Revolutionary states emphasized the protection of individual rights, equality before the law, and freedom from oppression, inspired by Enlightenment ideas.
Constitutions: Written constitutions became common, establishing legal frameworks that limited government power, defined rights, and promoted the rule of law.
Abolition of Feudalism and Social Hierarchies: Revolutions dismantled old feudal systems, privileged aristocracies, and the clergy’s political dominance, promoting a more meritocratic and class-fluid society.
In contrast, previous states were largely monarchies that ruled through divine right, where the king or emperor held centralized, unchecked power, and societies were structured hierarchically with limited rights for common people. The new states valued citizenship, legal equality, and political participation, marking a stark departure from traditional monarchies.
- Discuss the role of slavery and the role of France (including the French Revolution) in
the leadup to the Haitian Revolution.
The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was profoundly influenced by the institution of slavery and the political context of France, including the ideals of the French Revolution.
Role of Slavery
Brutal Conditions: Enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) worked under brutal conditions on sugar and coffee plantations, facing harsh treatment and high mortality rates. This exploitation created deep resentment and a desire for freedom among enslaved people.
Slave Resistance: Enslaved people engaged in acts of resistance, including revolts and escapes, laying the groundwork for the larger revolutionary movement. The most notable early resistance was the Boukman Revolt in August 1791, which marked the beginning of the organized uprising.
Role of France and the French Revolution
Influence of Revolutionary Ideals:
The French Revolution’s principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired enslaved people in Saint-Domingue. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) challenged the legitimacy of slavery and fueled demands for emancipation.
Political Confusion in France: The revolution created a power vacuum and uncertainty about the status of colonial territories. In 1794, the French National Convention abolished slavery in all French colonies, though this was not consistently enforced, creating tensions between free people of color and white colonists.
Emergence of Leaders: The revolutionary period saw the rise of leaders like Toussaint L’Ouverture, who initially fought for the French but later led the enslaved people in a struggle for independence. L’Ouverture’s military and political acumen helped consolidate the revolution and fight against foreign interventions.
Colonial Conflict: France’s inability to manage its colonial empire during the revolution, coupled with external threats from other European powers wanting to reinstate slavery, intensified the revolutionary struggle in Saint-Domingue.
Overall, the convergence of slavery, revolutionary ideas from France, and the aspiration for freedom catalyzed the Haitian Revolution, ultimately leading to Haiti’s declaration of independence in 1804, making it the first successful slave revolt in history.
Why, according to Reinhardt, has the Haitian Revolution been “hushed up” particularly
in the Western world?
The first text discusses how the Haitian Revolution is often ignored or trivialized in historical discourse. Historians use “erasing tropes” to deny the revolution’s significance or “trivializing tropes” to diminish its importance by focusing on isolated events or biophysical explanations. For instance, biographies of Toussaint Louverture often romanticize his life, stripping away the revolution’s broader significance. Western historians have historically dismissed the revolution as a failure, attributing it to unfavorable conditions for Europeans rather than recognizing the Haitian army’s achievements.
The second text highlights the long-standing refusal of the U.S. and European powers to acknowledge Haiti’s independence due to fears of inspiring slave revolts. It wasn’t until 1862 that the U.S. recognized Haiti, while European powers like France demanded reparations for Haitian independence. Over time, scholars began to challenge Eurocentric interpretations of the revolution, acknowledging its significance. Recent commemorations of Haitian history signal a shift toward recognizing Haiti’s role in global history, breaking from the previous narrative that belittled the revolution’s achievements and significance. There is growing hope for a more inclusive and balanced view of Haitian history, reflecting a shift away from Eurocentric perspectives.
